SD 397 
.S77 MS 
Copy 1 



D STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
BULLETIN No. 544 



Contribution from the Forest Service 
HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester 



Washington, D. C. 



PROFESSIONAL PAPER 



October 31, 1917 



THE RED SPRUCE: 
ITS GROWTH AND MANAGEMENT 



By 



LOUIS S. MURPHY, Forest Examiner 



CONTENTS 



Introduction 1 

Uses of Spruce 1 

Amount and Value of Spruce Cut and Im- 
ported 3 

Present Stand of Spruce 7 

Value of Spruce and Spruce Stumpage . 7 

Range and Distribution 10 

Forest Type „ 11 

Second Growth Stands of Spruce ... 14 

Soil and Moisture Requirements ... 14 

Light Requirements 15 

Windfirmness 15 



Page 

Reproduction 16 

Form 22 

Length of Life and Maximum Size ... 22 

Susceptibility to Injury ....... 23 

Growth 29 

Stands and Yields 41 

Methods of Cutting 45 

Brush Disposal 59 

Sowing and Planting 64 

Rotation 67 

Appendix 68 




WASHINGTON 
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1917 



d; of D. 

NOV 14 19U 



. b77M8 



THE RED SPRUCE: ITS GROWTH AND MANAGE- 
MENT. 



CONTENTS. 



Pago, 

lutnxluotion 1 

Uses of spruce 1 

Amount and value of spruoe cut and im- 
ported 3 

Pre.sent stand of spruce 7 

Value of spruce and spruce stumpage 7 

Range and distribution 10 

I'orest tj'pes 11 

Second growth stands of spruce 14 

Soil and moisture requirements 14 

Light requirements 1.) 

Windfirmness 15 



rage. 

Reproduction i(i 

Form 22 

I^ength of life and maximum size 22 

Susceptibility to injury 23 

Growth 29 

Stands and yields 41 

Afothods of cutting if) 

Brush disposal oO 

Sowing and planting (14 

Rotation ti7 

Appendix 68 



INTRODUCTION. 

Spruce is one of the most important woods in the Eastern United 
States. It grows on large areas in pure or nearly pure stands, is 
distributed over many of the Northern States, and extends into the 
southern Appalachians at the higher altitudes. It is used more than 
any other wood in the manufacture of paper, and supplies a large 
amount of lumber and other material. 

Various methods of forest management for spruce have been 
adopted by large lumber and pulp companies, of which spruce often 
forms the principal cut. The chief purpose of this bulletin is to 
formulate definite systems of forest management for various con- 
ditions.' 

USES OF SPRUCE. 

Early in the history of the first Nov/ England settlement spruce 
became established as a valuable wood in shipbuilding, for framing, 
topmasts, and yards; and, where oak became scarce in the vicinity 
of the northern shipyards, it was used for ship knees. It soon found 
its way also into the export trade and was sent to the shipyards of 

1 The author's field investigations had to do chiefly with the spruce as it occurs in second growth. Ac- 
cordingly, except for a reproduction study made in connection with the remeasurement of spruce permanent 
sample plots, the data and discussions concerning old gro\\1;h or \ irgin conditions are based largely on an 
office study (1) of the material availal)le in publications, of which the most important are the Adh-ondack 
Spruce, by GifTord Pinchot, Practical Forestry in the Adirondacks, by Hemy S. Graves (Bulletin 26, 
Di , ision of Forestry, U. S. Department of Agriculture), and the various annual forestry reports of Maine, 
New Hampshire, and New York, and (2) of the various unpublished data on spruce which ha\e been 
collected by members of the Forest Service in times past. 
84949°— Bull. 544—17 1 



2 BULLETIN 544, U, S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 

England, the Continent of Europe, and the West Indies, where it was 
classed as a construction timber. Not until considerably later, 
however, did it assume a place of importance in the general market 
for carpentry and building use. When the supply of virgin white 
pine in New England declined, spruce was turned to as a substitute. 
Since 1840 the use of spruce as a lumber wood has steadily increased 
both in the domestic and foreign markets. Its rise as a raw material 
m the production of paper dates from about 1870 to 1875, although 
it was not until 1890 or 1895 that its consumption for this purpose 
became very important. 

The most extensive smgle use to which spruce is put now is the 
making of paper, news stock, prmcipally. Fully half the annual cut 
of red spruce is consumed by the paper industry. 

Spruce is widely used in building and rough construction work, 
particularly where it is not exposed to the weather. In floors it 
wears better than white pine, but is inferior to many of the hard- 
woods. It retains its natural color when finished better than white 
pine, and it takes paint well. As interior finish it is employed for 
stair work, ceiling, and door, sash, and casing material. It also is 
made into shingles, siding, and laths, but as shingle material is con- 
sidered inferior to many other woods. Large quantities are cut into 
joists, large dimension stuff, and car stock, since for its weight it is 
one of the strongest woods on the market. After being given pre- 
servative treatment to hinder decay it is employed for wharf and 
bridge piles, railroad ties, posts, and poles. 

On account of the resonant quality of the wood, its even structm-e, 
the absence of vessels, the extremely fine and regularly distributed 
medullary rays, and the straight and long fibers spruce is generally 
considered to be the best wood for piano sounding boards, as well 
as for wooden musical instruments generally. For this purpose the 
wood must be of selected quality. It must be straight fibered and 
free from knots, and must have narrow and uniform rings and but 
little resin. 

Spruce belongs to the class of tasteless woods, and for tliat reason 
is extensively used for containers in which articles of food are packed 
or handled, such as tubs, firkins, butteinvorkers, chums, fish baiTels, 
and boxes and crates for vegetables and fruit. It is hkewise in 
demand for boxes in which cans and bottles of salad and other table 
oils are packed for shipment. 

Recently spruce has come into general use in the manufacture of 
au'planes, Tlie wood meets satisfactorily the requirements of this 
industry, which demands lightness combined with strength and, 
above all, reliability, including freedom from hidden defects. It is 
used both for the upright posts and the general framework. 



THE RED SPRUCE. 3 

Minor uses of spruce are for matches, toys, clothespins, wooden- 
ware, sieve frames, cheese molds, and bandboxes. On account of 
its straight grain and light weight it finds a considerable use also in 
the manufacture of ladder, screen frames, cold-storage plants, 
refrigerators, pump stocks. furnitiu*e, canoe paddles, and light boat 
oars. 

Two by-products of spruce may bo mentioned. The resinous 
exudations are used as chewing-gum, and the claim is sometimes made 
that they possess medicinal properties. The extract made from the 
tender tips of the branches by boiling with water forms the basis of 
spruce beer, a nonalcoholic beverage formerly very popular, particu- 
larly among seafaring men, by whom it was considered a preventive 
of scurvy. 

AMOUNT AND VALUE OF SPRUCE CUT AND IMPORTED. 

Table 1 shows for the year 1909 * the amount of spruce of all 
species utihzed for different purposes, and the total and imit value 
of the material for each use. More than three-fom-ths of the total 
was red spruce. 

Spruce ranked sixth in 1909 in the amount of lumber produced 
and contributed 3.9 per cent of the total for all woods. It was 
surpassed by yellow pine, Douglas fir, oak, white pine, and hemlock. 
In pulp production it ranked first and supphed 60 per cent of aU the 
wood used. Nearly one-third of this, however, was imported. 
Spruce ranked ninth in slack stave production (3.6 per cent); twelfth 
in slack headuig production (1.3 per cent); and ninth in the pro- 
duction of slack hoops (0.03 per cent), being surpassed in all of these 
minor uses by red gum, pine, beech, elm, birch, basswood, and 
maple. One per cent of the veneers produced m 1909 were of spruce, 
which ranked fourteenth among the species. In addition, 1 per 
cent of all the shingles, 0.2 per cent of aU the railroad ties, 0.3 per 
cent of all the telegraph and telephone poles, and 2 per cent of all 
the cross arms produced in the United States were of spruce. 

1 Forest Products of the United States, 1909, Bureau of the Census in Cooperation with the Forest Ser\ice. 
Government Printing Oflice, 1911. This contains the latest complete enumeration covering minor as 
well as major forest products, which accounts lor its use here in place of more recent data covering but a 
part of the field. 



BULLETIN 544, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 



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6 BULLETIIsr ;544, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

According to the census/ the reported production of spruce kniiber 
remamed practically stationary during the 10 years prior to 1909. 
The cut of 1909 was only slightly greater than that of 1907, and had 
the 1907 canvass been as complete it is probable that the 1907 pro- 
duction would have been found the gi-eater, which indicates that the 
production of spmce lumber had then already passed its maximiun. 
This assumption is borne out by subsequent figures, since m 1910 
there were but 1,449,912,000 board feet produced, in 1913 but 
1,046,816,000 board feet, in 1914 but 1,245,614,000 board feet, and 
m 1916 but 1,129,750,000 board feet. 

In the consumption for pulp in 1907 spruce showed a declme m 
amount and in proportion to the other woods used. In 1910 there 
was a stiU further decluie, followed ])y a slight recovery in 1911 to 
not quite so much as was consumed in 1909. In 1914 there was an 
increase over 1909 spruce pulpwood consumption of approximately 
10 per cent with a total of 2,665,974 cords of which 1,957,487 cords 
v/as domestic spruce. By 1916 this gain amomited to approximately 
30 per cent with a total of 3,143,793 cords of which 2,399,993 cords 
was domestic spruce. In both years the consumption of imported 
spruce was below that m 1909, which had to be made good by the 
domestic spruce supply. This was done at the expense of spruce 
Imuber production which in 1909 made up 63 per cent of the com- 
bined total of pulp and limiber supphed by domestic spruce which 
in 1914 was but 56 per cent and in 1916 only 48 per cent. Notwith- 
standing this material increase in consumption of spruce for pulp the 
combined total of pulp and lumber supplied by domestic spruce 
decreased from 2,575,172,000 board feet in 1909 to 2,224,358,000 
board feet in 1914 and 2,329,747,000 board feet in 1916. It is very 
evident that spruce limaber production v;as cm-tailed and a larger 
percentage of this high-gi-ade material put into pulp notwithstanding 
that dm-ing the last two years European buj^crs of American forest 
products have increased their ordei*s for spruce for aU purposes 
abroad. Its accessibiUty in the east and its general all-romid prop- 
erties, mcluding lightness, have made it much in demand. 

In the use of spruce for slack cooperage and veneers in 1909 there 
was also a decrease, while in the number of raih'oad ties there was 
an increase due to the increasing use of chemical preservatives which 
made the less durable woods, such as spruce, more largely available 
for this pm'pose. 

1 Forest Products of the United States, 1909, Bureau of the Census in Cooperation with the Forest Service, 
Government Printing OfHce, 1911 . Thus contains the latest complete enumeration covering minor as well 
as major forest products, which accounts for its use here in place of more recent data covering but a part 
of the field. 



THE RED SPRUCE. 



PRESENT STAND OF SPRUCE. 

The amount of standing spruce timber in the United States/ 
according to recently revised estimates, is 116,500 million feet board 
measure, or 4 per cent of the total standing timber of all kmds. 
This stand is divided among the three commercial spruce regions as 
follows: The eastern or red spruce region, 48.3 per cent;^ the Rocky 
Momitainor Engehnann spruce region, 30.3 per cent; and, the Pacific 
coast or Sitka spmce region. 21.4 per cent. 

The commercial stands of spruce timber in the eastern spruce 
region by States are given in Table 2. 

Table 2. — Stand of spruce in the eastern or red spruce region. 



State. 


Billions 

of board 

feet. 


Percent. 




• 


26.0 
5.9 
1.4 
0.9 

13.3 
0.2 
8.6 


46.2 




10.5 


Vermont 


2.5 




1.6 


New York 


23.6 




0.3 




15.3 










oG.3 


100.0 







VALUE OF SPRUCE AND SPRUCE STUMPAGE. 

In total value of annual lumber production in 1909 spruce stood 
sixth among the woods, with 4.3 per cent of the gross output, and in 
unit value of the manufactured product it stood fifteenth, with a 
value of S16.91 per 1,000 board feet. It was surpassed in total value 
by yeUow pine, oak, white pine, Douglas fir, and hemlock; and in 
unit value by walnut, cherry, hickory, j^eUow poplar, ash, oak, 
cyi^ress, cedar, basswood, white pine, sugar pine, cottonwood, ehn, 
and birch. 

Table 3 shows the value of spruce stimipage by States, based both 
on estimates and on reports of sales collected by the Forest Service 
for the years 1907 and 1912. As a means of comparison the table 
includes the values for spruce in the Lake States, Rocky Mountain, 
and Pacific Coast States for these same years; also the census figures 
for all spruce for the years 1899 and 1904. 

The range of 1912 values was from $1 to $11 per thousand, accord- 
ing to estimates, and from $2 to $11, according to sales. The mini- 
mum estimated value, $1, was reported from North Carolina; and 

' Unpublished estimates of the "Standing Timber in the United States," prepared by the Section of 
Computing, Forest Ser%ice, February, 1915. 

' The amount of spruce of commercial size remaining in the Lake States was apparently too small to be 
expre.ssed in terms of bilhon feet. Tliis is doubtless also true of other States, as those in the southern 
Appalachians, omitted from Table 2. 



8 BULLETIN .544, U. S. DP:PARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

the maximimi from New York. North CaroHiia, Tennessee, and Vir- 
ginia each reported $2 sales, and New Yorlc reported maximum 
price sales, $11. 

In seven of the red spruce States, Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, 
New York, Maryland, North Carolina, and Kentucky, there wns a 
rise in stumpage values from 1907 to 1912, while in the remainder 
there was a declme. Leaving out of consideration Maryland and 
Kentucky, where the number of reports is too small to form a relial)le 
basis, the greatest rise took place in New York and showed a gain of 
25 per cent and 35 per cent on the basis of estimates and of sales, 
respectively. The next greatest gaui was in North Carolina, where 
a rise of 21 per cent is indicated on the basis of 16 estimates. Ver- 
mont ranks third m percentage of increase; New Hampshire, fourth; 
and Mame, with the largest number of reports, shows the least in- 
crease in values, 6 per cent according to estimates and 3 per cent 
according to sales. New York also ranks first in the greatest actual 
increase, namely, $1.44 and $2, according to estimates and to sales, 
respectivel}^, followed by Vermont, New Hampshire, North Carolina, 
and Maine, in the order named. 

Table 'A. — Stumpage values of spruce} 

ALL SPECIKS OF SPRUCE.^ 





1912 


1907 


State. 


Average per 1,000 
feet from estimates. 


Average per 1,000 
feet from sales. 


Average per 1,000 




Value 

per 1,000 

board 

feet. 


Number 

of 
reports. 


Value 

per 1,000 

board 

feet. 


Number 

of 
reports. 


Value 

per 1,000 

board 

feet. 


Number 

of 
reports. 




$4.54 


4S8 


$4.16 


17.5 


$4.35 









EASTERN (RED) SPRUCE. 





$6.11 


236 


$5. 90 


78 


$5. 53 








All Northeastern States 


6.50 


205 


6.32 


70 


5.93 


114 






Jfaine 


6.09 
6.78 

6.82 
6. 50 

7.25 

3.51 


102 
28 
25 
14 
36 

31 


5. 93 

6. .54 
6.72 
5.00 

7.81 

2.15 


37 
13 
9 
3 

S 

8 


.5.74 
0.07 

.5.87 
7.07 
,5. 81 

4.62 








Vermont 


31 


Massaelinsetts 


7 


New York 


"1 


All Appalachian States 


."0 


Pennsylvania 


6.37 
4.50 
3.00 
4.17 

2.00 


4 
3 
3 
3 
10 
1 
1 






8.00 
3. 33 
3.61 
4.63 
2.08 
1.63 
2. 50 


r' 












2. UO 


1 




West Virginia . 


15 


North Carolina 


2. 33 


6 










2.00 


' 









1 The values per cord for ptilpwood may be roughly approximated by halving those given in the table, 
all hough tlie common practice in the northern spruce country is to figure a cord equivalent to 600 board 
feet. 

2 The census gave the average values of spruce stumpage for all States as $3.70 per 1,000 feet in 1904 and 
$2.26 per 1,000 feet in 1899. 



THE RED SPRUCE. 

Table 3. — Stumpage values of spruce — Continued. 
LAKE STATES (WHITE) SPRUCE. 





1912 


1907 


State. 


Average per I,0()0 
feet from estimates. 


Average jicr 1,000 
feet from sales. 


Averasje per 1,000 
feet. 




Value 
feet. 


Nunilier 

of 
reports. 


Value 

per 1,000 

board 

feet. 


Number 

of 
reports. 


Value 

per 1,000 

board 

feet. 


Number 

of 
reports. 




$4.68 


94 


$4. 59 ! 20 


$,-..60 


99 






Wisconsin 


4.63 
5.04 
4.36 


38 
29 

27 


4.67 I 9 
4.79 I 6 


6.16 
5. 21 
5.47 


37 


Michigan 


■;7 


Minnesota 


4.20 


^ 


1.5 



ROCKY MOUN 


TAIN (ENGELMANN) SPRUCE. 










$2.12 


78 


$2.37 




51 


.$1.S7 


.^ 








2.07 
2.28 
1.71 
2.15 
2.31 
2.00 
2.50 


21 

8 
14 

25 

3 


2.13 
2.47 
2.41 
2.30 
2.45 
2.00 
2.67 




11 

8 
6 
7 
14 

1 
3 

1 


l.S! 
2. 00 
1.73 
1.64 
2.00 




Wyoming 


2 


Idalio...'. 




Utah 


7 


Colorado 


22 








1.94 


2 























PACIFIC COAST (SITKA) SPRUCE. 



\11 Pacific States 


$2.10 


SO 


$2.10 


26 


$1. 58 


68 








2.26 
1.90 
1..56 


20 

8 


2.41 
1..54 

1.87 


16 

8 
2 


1.73 
1. .<o 




Oregon 




Ci'ifornia 


, 







The number of reports from the remaining five Eastern or red 
spruce States which show a shrinkage in values is entirely inadequate 
for a reliable estimate of stumpage price tendencies. It is possible, 
liow^ever, that in such States as Massachusetts and Pennsylvania, 
where the amoimt of spruce was never extensive and where cutting 
lias been going on for many years, there is in fact an actual decline 
in values due to the poor quality of timber now available for cutting. 
This also may be the situation in Maryland, Virginia, and Kentucky. 
In West Virgmia, North Carolina, and Tennessee, how^over, the 
apparent decline is doubtless due to an msufficient nmnber of re- 
ports, since the virgin spruce growth in these States is of choice 
quality, and much of it is in localities which are just now l)eing 
developed. 

Eastern spruce in 1912 show^ed the second highest average stump- 
age value of 20 softwoods and the ninth highest of 38 softw^oods and 
hardwoods combmed.^ It w^as exceeded in value by cherry ($16.25), 
walnut ($15.64), pine ($8.35), ash ($7.87), yellow poplar ($7.87), 
hickory ($7.82), basswood ($7.70), and oak ($7.28). 



^ Compiled from estimates on all species reported in 1912. 



10 BULLETIN rAi, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE. 

Too nmcli dependence can not be placed on any of these values 
except for the purposes of general comparison, for the reason that 
tlii'ough a process of adulteration of the pui'ity of the product, so to 
speak, the true rise in value for a period of years is not shown by 
average stumpage price quotations. To illustrate: The average 
stumpage values per 1,000 feet in a certain locality might have been 
$2 twenty years ago, $3 ten years ago, and $4 to-day, while the qualify 
of the cut in those years might have been 100 per cent first quality 20 
years ago, worth $2 per 1,000 feet, 67 per cent fii-st quality 10 years 
ago, worth $4, and 40 per cent first quality to-day, worth $8, the 
differences bemg made up in the latter instances by cheap, low- 
grade material which 20 years ago could not have been given away. 
Thus the true rise in stumpage value, instead of being from $2 to H, 
as indicated by the average stumpage figures, should be $2 to $8, 
based on the same class of product throughout the period. This is 
but one of many similar conditions which help to obscure the true 
rise which has taken place and is taking place not only with spruce 
but with all stumpag(^ and which must be understood in making use 
of any general stumpage figures. 

RANGE AND DISTRIBUTION. 

Kegarding the range and distribution of rod spruce, the various 
botanical authorities are in disagreement. This condition arises 
largely from the fact that the red spruce and the closely allied black 
spruce are not perfectly distinguishable under some circumstances. 
When red spruce is segregated from the black spruce, its range is 
given as from Prmce Edwards Island to the valley of the St. Law- 
rence River, southAvard to the coast of Massachusetts, along the 
Ulterior hilly parts of New England and New York to the Allegheny 
Mountains, to western North Carolina, eastern Tennessee, and the 
higher peaks of South Carolina. When the black and red spruce are 
considered as a smgle species, the range extends, in addition to the 
above, from Labrador and Newfoundland to the valley of the McKen- 
zie River m latitude about 65° north and, crossing the Rocky Moun- 
tams, from the interior of Alaska to the valley of the ^Vliite River 
and from the eastern foothills of the Rocky Mountains iii Alberta 
through northern Saskatchewan and northern I^Ianitoba to central 
Wisconsin and Michigan. The accompanying map (fig. 1) shows 
these ranges graphically as well as those for the other species of this 
genus which are indigenous to the United States. 

The red spruce occurs chiefly on weU-drained uplands and momi- 
tahi slopes. In the northern portion of its range it is found on the 
better-drained soils at or near sea level. Within the United States 
its commercial range is rarely below 1,000 feet elevation, although 
under some conditions it may extend somewhat lower, as, for instance, 
in swamps. In these situations the red and black spruce find then- 



THE RED SPEUCE. 



11 



common meeting ground and approach each other so nearly in char- 
acter of growth and appearance that it is difficult to determine at 
what point the one entirely supersedes the other. Red spruce is 
also found in small groves along the seacoast of southern Maine and 
northern Massachusetts. vSpruce, presumably red spruce, is to be 
found in small parcels at between 200 and 500 feet elevation on the 
low rolling uplands of eastern Maine, where it has taken possession 
of old abandoned pastures. 

The upper limit of its range within the UnitcvJ States is at timb(u- 
line, although m the Northeastern States its commercial limit may 




LEGEND 

PICEA RUBENS 



l^s^^^^:^ PICEA MARIANA 

K>^^<><^ PICEA CANADENSIS 
WMTA PICEA SITCHENSIS 
Mrm PICEA ENGELMANNI- 
ICEA PARRYANA v- 
ICEA BREWERIANA- 



FiG. 1.— The botanical range of spruce. 

bo set at about 4,000 feet above sea level. In Maryland its minimum 
altitudmal range is 2,500 feet above sea level and constantly rises 
toward the southern limits of its occm-rence m northern Georgia. It 
probably reaches its commercial upper limit between 5,000 and 6,000 
feet in the mountams of Nortli Carolina and Tennessee. 



FOREST TYPES. 



The old growth forests of the spruce region may be divided into 
four main types. The names chosen here for these types are those 
commonly used by limibermen in describing them according to the 
various situations on which they occur. 



12 BULLETIN ;544, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGEICULTUKE. 

The relative importance of the four types varies according to the 
locaht}''. In the mountainous portions of central Maine the mixed 
hardwood lands and spruce slopes are of greatest importance, while 
in the northern part of the State the spruce fiat is the more prevalent. 
The spruce slope is the characteristic type in the White Mountain 
I'egion. In the Adirondacks the mixed hardwood type is the most 
common, followed by the spruce swamp and the spruce slope. In 
the southern portion of its range spruce is only sparingly associated 
^\'it]l hardwoods, the spruce slope type being more prevalent. 

SPRUCE SWAMPS. 

The spruce swamp type dominates the low-lying, poorly-drained 
areas, whose soil is a muck or peat, spongy in texture, and acid. The 
characteristic species are red spruce, black spruce, balsam, tamarack, 
cedar, soft maples, black ash, and other moistme-ioving trees. 
Sphagnum moss and low water-loving herbaceous plants commoi ly 
fonn the undergrowth. Spruce usually makes a slow growth in such 
situations, and is short and scraggly in appearance. It is particu- 
larly susceptible to windthrow on these soils, which prevents its at- 
taining as large size or as great age as when growing on the better 
types of soil. Even-aged stands are not at all uncommon. Ntmier- 
ous small islands of drier and firmer soil texture are scattered through- 
out this type of soil. They support a somewhat better growth of 
spruce, mixed with hemlock, white pine, birch, and some beech and 
sugjir maple. Balsam, tamarack, or arborvitse will not infrequently be 
found predominating in the wetter portions; and black spruce is 
largely confined to such places. 

SPRUCE FLATS. 

The level and rolling flats bordering the sw-amps, lakes, and water- 
courses, are occupied by the spruce flat type. The soil is variable 
in composition, moderately deep where sandy or gravelly in texture, 
and shallow where stones and bowlders predominate. While the 
percentage of moisture ma}^ be high, the drainage is free and a favor- 
able condition is afYorded for thrifty tree development. The flat t}-pe 
is in large measure a transition between the swamp type and the type 
of the mixed hardwood lands, and in many respects exhibits the 
characteristics of each. Spruce, birch, soft maples, white pine, hem- 
lock, and balsam are the characteristics trees in mixture. The 
presence of black ash, which is usually accompanied by considerable 
balsam, denotes conditions borderuig on the swamp type. The 
I)resenceof sugar maple, on the other hand, denotes a transition to the 
hardwood lands. White pine of good quality fomierl}' occurred in 
abundance in this type in both Maine and the Adirondacks, par- 
ticularl}^ where a sandy soil predominated. SpiTice attains an inter- 



THE RED SPRUCE, 13 

mediate development here, while birch and the better hardwoods ai'c 
inferior in development as compared with the same species growing 
on the hardwood lands. Hemlock and red maple find the best con- 
ditions for their development in this type. Whidfall is not imcom- 
mon, and as a result young even-aged stands of spruce are found 
occupying the ground v/here this has taken place. Second-gro^^'th 
stands of birch and red maple may also be found occupynig such 
areas. 

MIXED HARDWOOD LANDS. 

The mixed hardwood type occupies the best soil sites of the region, 
usually the benches and the lower mountain slopes. The soil is here 
best adapted to hardwood growth, is deep, of more or less even 
texture, fresh, and well-drained. Besides spruce, sugar maple, beech, 
and birch predominate, and there is a scattering of hemlock, white 
pine, soft maple, cherry, and a vanety of other species. The propor- 
tion of spnice hi mixture depends on topographic conditions. On 
gentle slopes, broad benches, and low ridges the hardwoods fhid con- 
ditions so favorable to their development that the spruce is largely 
crowded out. The more irregular and broken topography enables 
the spruce to compete with the hardwoods on more nearly eq\uxl 
terms. What spruce lacks iii reproductive power it makes up b}' 
its superior ability to grow on the rougher, thinner soils. The broken 
topography undoubtedly favors spruce on accomit of the higher per- 
centage of moisture to be found in the soils of the protected coves 
and slopes than in those of the gentle and more regular slopes of 
uniform exposure. Spruce attains its maximum development in the 
mixed hardwood type, as do also most of the hardwoods. 

SPRUCE SLOPES. 

Tlie slope type occupies the steeper slopes, with thin, stony soil, 
above the hardwood land, and may extend to the limits of tree 
growth, although not infrequently it gives way to a scrubby alpine 
growth composed almost exclusively of balsam, Tlie type is char- 
acterized by a nearly pure coniferous growth with spruce pre- 
dominatmg. Balsam is also present in appreciable quantities. 
The characteristic hardwood is yellow birch, which is generally of 
excellent quahty. Hemlock, white pine, and a variety of hai-d- 
woods occur sparingly in the lower portions of this type or on tlie 
better soils of the lower ridges. Spruce of good quahty, with tall, 
clean boles, closely set together in a dense stand, is produced on this 
type. As compared with the hardwood lands, spruce development 
is inferior here on account of the greater habihty to windfall an.d 
poorer soils. Also because of the habihty to windfall the forest 
is often comparatively yomig. 



14 BULLETIN oii, U, S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

SECOND-GROWTH STANDS OF SPRUCE. . 

Partial or complete destruction, such as is effected by lumbering, 
windfall, or fii-es, will alter more or less completely the original char- 
acter of any of these types, depending on the severity of the cutting 
or the extent of the windfall or fire. The succeeding second growth 
will develop a strong tendency to produce a groupwise association of 
the species, which in case of extended destruction may effect a tem- 
porary replacement of the original growth by either of two general 
forms — pure, even-aged stands of spruce or balsam alone or in mix- 
tm-e with each other, hemlock, arborvitse, and hardwoods, or a two- 
storied form comprising an over wood, usually of such hardwoods as 
aspen, grey birch, fu-e cheiTy, and the like, and an understory of 
spruce. The last named is the typical one following fire. Never- 
theless, if left undisturbed, the characteristics of these stands will 
usually revert to those of the parent type. 

OLD-FIELD SPRUCE. 

Because of their economic possibilities, particularly as forecasting 
the results which may be expected from plantations, the old-field 
spruce stands merit special mention. As their name implies, they 
occupy abandoned lands formerly mider cultivation or in pasture. 
Thqy are essentially even-aged and composed chiefly of spruce. Here- 
after the discussion of second growth will refer to this character of 
the stand miless otherwise specified. 

SOIL AND MOISTURE REQUIREMENTS. 

Spruce is fomid on all kinds t)f soil. It is not exacting in its 
demands as to chemical composition, but prefers the well-drained 
gravelly and sandy loam soils of the mountain slopes and benches 
because of their favorable moisture conditions. Heavy soils are 
imfavorable to spruce because they hinder root penetration, accentu- 
ating its shallow rootcdness, and thus render it more than ever liable 
to windthrow. 

Moisture is the most potent factor influencing the local distribution 
of spruce on the various soils. Soils like sand or coarse gravel, which 
are devoid of binding material, quicldy lose their surface moisture. 
Tliey therefore afford scant opportmiity for the development of spruce, 
even though the water table is but a few feet below the surface, smce 
the water can not be reached by the superficial root system. Spruce 
can endure a wet soil, such as the clays and fuie alluviums occurring 
hi swamps. It reaches its best development, however, on the inter- 
mediate gravelly or sandy loam soils with free drainage, yet with a 
plentiful supply of surface or subsurface moisture. 

Aside from these preferences of spruce, its distribution is dependent 
largely upon its ability to grow on sites mifavorable to its competitors. 
Spruce is not infrequently fomid almost solely in possession of large 



\ 



THE RED SPRUCE. 15 

areas on steep, rocky mountain slopes or wet bottom lands. Com- 
petition witli the hardwoods is reduced both by their inabihty to adapt 
their root systems to the shallow soil and by excessive moisture con- 
ditions. Thus spruce is found most abmidantly, not where the best 
conditions for its own growth exist, but where its competitors are 
not readily able to grow. 

On the more favorable soils such agencies as fire, windfall, and 
fimgous or insect attacks may prove a means by which the extension 
of spruce is made possible, provided a sufficient number of spruce 
seed trees remain to seed up quickly the ground formerly occupied by 

its competitors. 

LIGHT REQUIREMENTS. 

Spinice is one of the most tolerant of shade of our forest trees. Of 
the associates, only hemlock, and possibly sugar maple and beech, 
are more tolerant.^ Spruce also possesses to a remarkable degree tlie 
power to recover and grow in a thrifty and normal manner follow- 
ing its release from long periods of suppression. Having once gained 
a foothold in the selection forest, the young spruce grips life tena- 
ciously, struggles along for many years mider the shade of the forest, 
and gradually forces its way upward as natural thinnmg reduces the 
number of its overtopping competitors. It is in fact to these quali- 
ties more than any others that spruce owes its ability to persist as a 
factor in the mixed selection forest of the Adirondacks, in the North- 
east, and tliroughout its range. 

Strangely enough these tolerant and recuperative qualities are 
most characteristically displayed by spruce m the selection forest. 
In the dense, even-aged pnre stands, root competition and mechan- 
ical interference due to overcrowding enter in to complicate the situ- 
ation. Trees which are suppressed under these conditions recuper- 
ate very slowly, if at all. Most often, when the stand is opened up 
sufficiently to afford the requisite amount of light and growmg space, 
the suppressed crown is so reduced in size and vitality as to make 
recuperation imperceptible for a period of years. Such suppressed 
trees when released from overcrowding often succumb to wmdthrow 
or smi-scald. 

Balsam although moderately tolerant is less so than spruce, the 
keen rivalry between the two species being due to other qualities in 
which balsam surpasses spruce. 

WINDFIRMNESS. 

Unlike most hardwoods and some of the conifers, notably the yel- 
low pine and Douglas fir of the West, spruce develops a very super- 
ficial root system. On accomit of the intimate relation between the 
root and the crown of a tree and the active competition of root sys- 

i Under the keenly competitive conditions which prevail in even-aged second-growth stands, spruce is 
able readily to suppress and kill out even these species. 



IG BULLETIN 544, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICUT.TUKE. 

t(nns, particularly those of the shallow-rooted species, spruce is nuich 
less windfirm when growing in crowded or pure stands than \\lien 
growmg in the open or m mixture with hardwoods. Thus the rela- 
tive size and the form of the crown of spruce growing under different 
conditions of density and association is an index of its comparative 

windfirmness. 

REPRODUCTION. 

SOIL, MOISTURE, AND LIGHT. 

Spruce finds its most favorable conditions for germination and sub- 
sequent early growth on the moist forest floor under cover of the not 
too dense stand of the selection forest. Here a suitable seedbed of 
moss, dead wood, and needle litter is found, which, being protected 
from exposure to the drymg influences of sun and wind, affords suffi- 
cient moisture for germination and early development. That spruce 
appears to be selective in its seedbed requirements, and that observ- 
ers are in disagreement as to whether it does better on mineral soil 
or on moss, dead wood, or duff, is largely because so much depends 
upon the moisture conditions in the different materials. 

A plentiful supply of soil moisture is absolutely essential, not alone 
at the tune of germination but throughout the period when the young 
plant is becoming established. This condition can bt^ most readily 
obtained, and with the minimum amount of free moisture in the form 
of precipitation and seepage, under cover of the forest. That spruce 
will germmate and continue to grow and thrive on mineral soil can 
not be gainsaid, but onl}^ when such soil is protected from drying 
influences and is plentifully supplied with a constant amount of avail- 
able moisture at or very near the surface. The same applies to 
to needle litter and old logs . 

NeedJo litter when imder a pure stand of spruce, particularly dense, 
unthinned, even-aged stands, is apt to accumulate much more rapitlly 
than it will disintegrate. The upper layer forms a loosely compact 
mantle, which rapidly loses its surface moisture when exposed to 
drying influences. In the early spring or late fall, when humid con- 
ditions prevail, this mantle of needle htter contains suflicient moistm-e 
to induce germination, but the 3^oung plants are soon after destroyed 
by frost or drought. Furthermore, it is difficult for the young seed- 
lings to extend their root systems through the litter to mineral soil. 
In consequence, it is not suitable for a seedbed, and in fact, under 
such circumstances, is a great detriment to reproduction. If no great 
depth of such litter exists, so that the disintegrating humus layer is 
practically at the surface, the seedbed is admirable, since the humus 
is very retentive of moisture, and the vegetable mold fidl of nourish- 
ment. Acid humus, however, is not suitable, for though it is most 
common in supermoist situations it is physiologically dry. The same 
general considerations that apply to needle litter apply to a still 
greater extent to the leaf litter from hardwoods, since, pai'ticularly 



Bui. 544, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



Plate 







To 

9 Q 



9 feo 




544, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



Plate II. 




FiQ. 1.— In the Virgin Forest. 




Fig. 2.— In an Opening ryiADE dy a Cutting 12 Years Previous. 




FiQ. 3.-UNDER A Stand of White Birch and Popple on a Burn of 40 Years Ago. 
SPRUCE REPRODUCTION. 



THE RED SPRUCE. 17 

in the case of the thicker leaved hardwoods like maple, the duff not 
only sheds water and thus dries out quickly at the surface, but it 
also offers a considerable resistance to the root penetration of the 
germinating spruce seedlings. 

The presence of moss is simply an indication of the presence of 
5urface moisture throughout the growing season in sufTicient amount 
to afford favorable conditions for spruce germination. An unbroken 
grass sod hinders the reproduction of spruce, both because it resists 
the progress toward the mineral soil of the rootlets of the young 
plant and because it makes excessive demands on subsurface mois- 
ture. In very moist and wet situations grass sod is seldom con- 
tinuous, and in such places spruce has no trouble in starting under 
the cover and protection of the rank growth. 

Protection from direct insolation and wind is also of importance, 
since they not only cause the drying out of the upper layers of the 
soil but induce rapid transpiration from the leaves of the young 
plants. This latter is particularly disastrous in the winter season 
when the soil is frozen and the seedlings are prevented from replenish- 
ing from the soil the supply of moistm'e thus given off. Such a 
condition is most likely to develop during a season of little snow, or 
where through exposure to an unbroken sweep of wind the snow has 
little chance to accumulate. In these open, bare situations, also, a 
warm day causing rapid thawing may be followed by freezing at 
night, which loosens the soil around the roots of the seedling and 
thus allows these tender members to be exposed to drought and frost. 

In addition to moisture, a certain amount of light is absolutely 
necessary if the seedling is to endure beyond the period of germina- 
tion. Since, however, spruce does not make extravagant demands 
in its light requirements, little difficulty is encountered in securing 
suitable conditions in this respect. 

SEED PRODUCTION. 

Authorities vary widely in then- estimates of the frequency and 
abundance of spruce seed production. So far as is known, no obser- 
vations have been carried on over a sufficient period of years to 
determine tliis with any degree of certainty. Spruce unquestion- 
ably produces a certain amount of seed annually, and conditions 
may be such that a good crop wiU occur for two successive years. 
In general, however, the interval between succeeding fuU seed crops 
varies from three to seven or eight years. 

Spruce produces from 50 to 90 per cent perfect seed; from 60 to 
80 per cent of which germinate. The seeds retain their vitality for 
at least two years under ordinary conditions of storage, and probably 
much longer. Variations are due to the conditions in the seed year. 
An off year not only produces fewer seeds, but the quality is poorer. 

84949°— Bull. 544—17 2 



18 BULLETIN .544, TT. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

The age at which spruce begins to bear seed of good quaUty varies 
widely, depending on the soil quality, the exposure, and whether 
the tree is growing in the open or in the forest. In the virgin forest 
the production of seed is only indirectly a function of age and is 
more directly dependent upon size. The individual tree varies 
gi'eatly as to the age when it becomes freed from suppression and 
enters upon a normal stage of development, thus gaining for itself a 
place in the full light of the upper crown classes. It appears from a 
study of the spruce made by the Bureau of Forestry^ in cooperation 
with the Forest Commission of Maine in 1901, that in no case was a 
tree smaller than 5 inches in diameter at breastheight found bearing 
cones. The average age of spruce of this size in the virgin selection 
forest may be placed at about 100 years and in even-aged second- 
growth stands at from 20 to 30 years. Other observers have reported 
forest grown trees of three or four inches in diameter bearing seeds 
wherever their crowns were not directly under the shade of some 
other tree. The largest quantity and best quality of seed is pro- 
duced in the virgin forest by trees from 10 to 18 inches in diameter 
at breastheight. In other words, spruce in the forest begins to 
bear seed when the crown succeeds in reaching the light, and begins 
to bear heavily when the top of the crown thickens. At first a few 
cones are borne near the main stem below the last year's growth, and 
as the crown thickens and spreads the cones are borne on the side 
branches. The fii'st seed produced is of very poor quality. 

In the open and under favorable soil and exposure conditions, 
seed production begins as early as the fifteenth or twentieth year, and 
heavy crops follow by the thirtieth or the thirty-fifth year. In the 
dense, even aged second-growth spruce stands the cones begin to be 
sparingly formed about the thirtieth year under the most favorable 
conditions; but a safe average for initial seed production in such 
stands would be not earfier than from the thirty-fifth to the fortieth 
year, with a full crop production about five or ten years later. Spruce 
continues to bear seed to an advanced age. 

Spruce seeds begin to mature between September 15 and October 1 , 
dependmg upon climatic conditions. Seed coUectmg, therefore, can 
be most profitably confined between these dates; or if a larger amount 
of seed is required than can be collected during this period, the work 
should be begun earher and timed so as to reach completion by Octo- 
ber. Upon full maturity the cones open and many of the seeds fall 
out, although not all, for frequently a considerable amount of seed 
can be seen on the surface of the late snows in February and March. 
After the cones are fully matured they are easily dislodged durmg 
lumberiag; but if they are not disturbed, they remam on the trees 
until the next spring or early summer. The seed is fight and winged 

1 Now the Forest Service. 



THE EED SPRUCE. 19 

and thus can be carried a long distance by the wind, variously esti- 
mated at from one-fourth to one-half mile. Its effective range under 
ordinary conditions is, however, very much less than that, probably 
not more than 200 feet. 

COMPETITIVE DISADVANTAGES. 

Spruce is subject to considerable comi)etition with other species for 
the possession of the ground. In the mixed softwood and hardwood 
stands, beech and maple are its chief competitors; and in the soft- 
wood stands, balsam. Such species as witch hobble, briars, and the 
like often take possession of the ground after loggmg or fire, also fire 
cherry, aspen, and birch. These latter, however, soon open up their 
cro\vn cover sufficiently to admit of spruce coming in beneatli. 
The competition where briars and their associates occupy the ground 
after extensive cuttings or fire, is largely a matter of unfavorable seed- 
bed conditions. 

The competition of balsam, on account of its close association witli 
spruce, is of vital importance. It almost mvariably happens that on 
the replacement of stands where these two species occur m mixture, 
balsam largely predominates in the second growth. Balsam pos- 
sesses the two distinct advantages over spruce of a plentiful supply 
of seed annually and of a decidedly more rapid growth, particularly 
hi the seedling stage. While the moisture, seed bed, and to a great 
extent the light requirements are about the same for both, the more 
rapid growth of balsam enables it to extend its root system more 
vigorously and thus become established more quickly and more 
finnly under seed-bed conditions in which spruce, although germi- 
nating with equal facility, is later exterminated through subsequent 
drying out of the upper layers before its roots have become firmly 
estabhshed. Soil aciditj'' under spruce growth is supposed to be 
inimical to the development of the spruce seedling, while the balsam 
seedling is unaffected by it. Spruce, however, wiU come in under 
balsam without difficulty. This has led to the supposition that a 
balsam growth must intervene between successive growths of spruce 
in order to "sweeten" the soil. 

While the theory may be true, a contributory cause at least may 
be found in the character of the litter under the two stands. Spruce 
needle Utter, particularly under dense forest conditions, is very resist- 
ant to decay. It thus has a tendency to accumulate faster than it 
can be decomposed, formmg an inert soil cover of considerable 
depth, resistant to root penetration and porous, quickl}^ draining 
away the water close to the surface so much needed by the small, 
slovv -growing root system of the young spruce seedhngs. This handi- 
cap the more vigorously growing balsam seedling is able to overcome 
so as to estabhsh itself in place of the spruce. But balsam needle 
litter, decaying much more readily than the spruce, does not accumu- 



20 BULLETIN ,544, U. S. DEPABTMENT OP AGRICrLTURE. 

late iindecomposed to anything like the extent that spruce litter 
does. Thus the moist humus layers lie close to the surface and 
materially aid the young spruce to get established. 

Further than these, however, a condition was recently observed 
which, if noted by other observers, has not been mentioned before in 
any published work on the spruce and which places the spruce at a 
still further disadvantage in its competition with balsam and with 
hardwoods as well. During the examination of the forest floor under 
the normal cover of even-aged spruce stands in the latter half of 
September (1910), a large quantity of germinated spruce seed was 
found which must have been from the recently ripened seed crop, 
since only the seed leaves were developed, and in many cases even 
the seed-coat still enveloped the tips of the embryonic leaves. 
These spruce germinates were so thick in places as to make it im- 
possible to place a fuiger on the ground without crushing several. 
Balsam seedlings were also found, but remotely scattered as single 
individuals and almost without exception spring gt>rminates, with 
well-developed stems and permanent leaves. One and two year old 
balsam seedlings were also present. Spruce of this age was entirely 
lacking, and seedlings of the previous spring's germination wer<^ also 
on\j sparingly represented. 

Balsam seed trees were not very numerous, so that this condition did 
not of itself indicate much with relation to the behavior of that species ; 
but subsequently a stand of ahnost pure balsam, within a short distance 
of the spruce plot just mentioned, was examined. Here, although the 
site was not quite the same, the density of the cover was very similar 
and in places conditions were even more favorable to germination 
and early growth than in the spruce stand. A close examination of 
the humus and light moss cover failed to disclose more than a scat- 
termg of balsam fall germinates, although the presence of new sound 
seeds in considerable quantity was disclosed. Balsam seedlings from 
spring germinates were plentiful, occurring as individuals, while 1 
and 2 year old seedlings were also numerous. 

In contrast to this condition spruce in the young growth of ()])en 
pastures was observed to be much more prevalent than balsam. In 
explanation of this apparent reversal of the reproduction capacities 
of the two species, it seems entirely probable that m the fall soil 
moisture and general climatic conditions are, in the open, much 
less favorable to germination of spruce than in the forest. Fur- 
thermore, the principal seed distribution of spruce in the open, 
except in the immediate vicinity of seed trees, doubtless occurs later 
in the season from seeds subsequently dislodged from the cones by 
the wmter storms. Thus in the open a relatively larger percentage 
of spruce seeds would lie over for sprmg germmation with a corre- 
spondingly better chance of becoming permanently estabhshed. 



THE RED SPRUCE. 2P 

As to the loss favorable showing of balsam, this was unquestion- 
ably duo in part to the smaller production of balsam seed, since 
there were fewer balsam than spruce seed trees in the particular 
locality where conditions were observed. Then, too, balsam seeds 
are heavier than those of spruce, so that they woidd not bo carried 
so far by the wmd, and balsam seedlings are also browsed by cattle 
much more than spruce. 

If this behavior of spruce and of balsam in regard to time of seed 
dispersal and germination is typical of the two species, it can be 
readily seen that even with a less production of fertile seed than 
spruce, balsam would have a considerable advantage. The fall ger- 
mmation of spruce would subject the very young seedlings to a 
material reduction in numbers and vitality during the first winter as 
a result of v/inter-killing, while the loss to balsam from this cause 
would be comparativeh^ insignificant. 

Spi-uce is at a disadvantage, too, in its early struggle for a foothold 
in mixed hardwood stands. The usual explanation for its failure to 
come in more plentifully under a mixed hardwood forest after cut- 
tmg is that the abmidance of hardwood leaf litter on the ground at 
the time of seed fall prevents the spruce seeds germinating thereon 
from getting their roots into mineral soil, both because of the tough 
and impenetrable texture of the birch, maple, and other hardwood 
leaves and because the loosely compact surface layer of leaves sheds 
the moisture and quickly dries out before the young spruce can get 
established. While these undoubtedly are among the contributory 
causes, observations made in Waterville, N. H., in the spring of 191 1 
in connection with spruce reproduction plots under hardwoods sug- 
gest that here again the early seed dispersal habit of spruce works 
to the disadvantage of its reproduction. On several of these plots 
after the leaf Utter of the previous fall was removed a considerable 
number of spruce germinates of that spring were counted. Many, 
however, were either wilted or had already succumbed to "damping- 
off," while others were bleached almost white and the stem and leaves 
were turgid and succulent, but without vigor, doubtless from too 
humid growing conditions and lack of sufficient light. This was par- 
ticularly noticeable under moosewood and young hardwood brusti 
with large coarse foliage. The absence of any one-year or two-year 
spruce on these plots was also noticeable. A marked contrast to this 
condition was found where any part of these plots happened to be 
protected from the heavy hardwood leaf fall by a group of suppressed 
spruce or smuill balsams or a pile of slash. Here there would be a gen- 
erous number of spruce germinates and one and two year seedlings as 
well. In fact, reproduction appeared to be entirely satisfactory. 

Whether fall germmation takes place in these circumstances or 
not, the seeds, or germinates, will be covered with a thick layer of 



22 BULLETIN .544, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

hai'dwood leaves. In the spring the warm rains and sun start fer- 
mentation of this mulch, and while this at fii'st affords conditions 
exceedingly favorable to the germination of the spruce seed, the 
yoimg seedlings are unable to survive the continued heat and humid- 
ity and the general smothering effect of the hardwood leaf litter. 
The trouble thus seems to be not that the seedlings are unable to 
get their roots into mineral soil or other suitable material as is usually 
claimed, but that the heavy mulch prevents them from getting their 
shoots up into the needed light and air. 

FORM. 

The form of spruce varies widely and is determined largely by its 
stage of development and whether it grows in the open or in the 
forest. Like all other conifers, however, it always develops a well- 
defined central axis. In the open and before arriving at the stage 
in the forest where its lower limbs begin to be suppressed, spruce lias 
a long, wide-spreading, conical-shaped crown, which extends well 
do^ii to the ground. Its bole tapers rapidly. This form is retained 
to a large extent throughout life by the trees growing in the open, 
although their crowns open out and become less regular in outline 
with advancing age. In the forest the crown is more compact and 
has a conically topped head. As the tree grows in height the crown 
becomes shorter in proportion to the total height through the lower 
branches dying out more rapidly than new ones can be produced 
above. The bole at the same time takes on a more cylindrical form 
below the crown. Trees growing in the selection forest are likely to 
taper a little more rapidly than those in the even-aged stands, since 
they receive more side light and thus retain a longer crown than the 
more densely crowded, even-aged ones.* 

LENGTH OF LIFE AND MAXIMUM SIZE. 

Spruce may be classed as one of the longest-lived trees in the 
eastern United States, ranking with the white oak in this respect. 
In a virgin stand spruce seldom matures under 200 years, and the 
average age of the trees in such stands is undoubtedly nearer 250 or 
300 years. According to Mr. Austin Cary, the oldest spruce which 
came mider his notice in Maine was approxunately 400 years (372 

' An example of the variable form and development of spruce growing under different conditions is shown 
in the following abstract from a memoir on the Adirondack spruce by the late Col. W. F. Fox, Superin- 
tendent of State Forests, in the Report of the Forest Commission, State of New York, 1894: "A 
spruce 20 inches in diameter growing in a clump of spruces will yield five logs 13 feet 4 inches in length, 
while one of the same diameter Ln a scattered growth mLxed with hardwoods will yield but fom- logs. In 
the one gi-owing among hard woods after four logs have been cut from the trmik the diameter of tlie last 
or top log at its small end will be from 10 to 12 inches, but the limbs above this point will be so thick and 
large that the fifth log would not be over 5 or 6 inches at the top and would not be accepted by the lumber- 
man. A tree of the same species and size growing in a chimp will yield five logs because the shaft does not 
diminish in size so fast owing to the lighter growth of limbs that form its top. While the larger spruce are 
found scattered among the hardwoods, the tallest ones of like diameter are found growing in the spruce 
ohunps." 



THE RED SPRUCE. 23 

years on the stump). The tree measured 28 inches in diameter and 
97 feet in height, and a merchantable log 65 feet in length was cut 
from it. The central stem measured 200 cubic feet (from 1,200 to 
1,500 board feet). Wlien cut it was in thrifty growing condition 
with a long, full crown. The trunk was sound throughout except 
for a slight discoloration and softness in the sapwood near the top. 
The late Chas. H. Green, of White Kiver Junction, Vt., gave the fol- 
lowing details of a tree cut in Pittsfield, Vt., at an elevation of about 
800 feet above the AVliite River. The tree was cut into four 14-foot 
logs and a top log of 24 feet. The top diameter of the fifth log was 
22 inches and the top diameter of the butt log 36 inches. The total 
scale was 3,590 feet. The tree was upward of 320 years old on the 
stump and was broken off at a height of 120 feet, where it had a 
diameter of 5 inches. A companion tree of 30 inches on the stump 
made six 14-foot logs, the last of which was 12 inches at the top end. 
He stated that when the logs reached the bank it was decided to 
blast them open in order to run them in a small stream and that when 
they reached the Connecticut River the rivermen used them as 
boats while poling logs out of the eddies. 

SUSCEPTIBILITY TO INJURY. 

FIRE. 

Spruce is particularly suceptible to injury by fire on account of its 
slow growth in early life, the resinous character of its exudations, 
and its shallow root system.. Ground fires are a menace to young 
spruce for a much longer period than to many of its associates. Its 
slow growth delays the formation of a protective corky layer of bark; 
and the long persistence of its lower branches lays it open to complete 
destruction by fires which its less tolerent neighbors would escape by 
having their crowns sufficiently elevated to be out of reach of serious 
damage. 

On many of the situations where spruce grows the soil is very 
shallow. It is here dependent in large measure upon the humus and 
moss cover for the protection of its superficial root system. A surface 
or ground fire in such a place would almost certainly destroy this 
protective layer, even though it was not of sufficient intensity to 
scorch the trunks of the trees. Serious damage to the roots would 
almost inevitably result, thus causing the death of the stand outright 
or creating a condition favorable to windthrow. 

On account of the tolerance and consequently the relatively heavy 
crown of spruce, a large quantity of inflammable debris is left on the 
ground after lumbermg, which makes the fire menace much greater in 
spruce stands than in those of the pine and other species in the region 
of its occurrence. This menace persists for several years, probably 
not less than from 7 to 10 years, even when the tops are lopped. 
Lopped tops in contact with the ground will have commenced to 



24 BULLETIN 544, V. S. DEPAETMENT OF AGEICULTURE, 

decay by that time. There are so many twigs or lops, however, that 
they must be piled out of the way of logging, and thus elevated from 
the ground they remain in an anflammable condition for a long time. 
Windrows of spruce lops even under fairly moist conditions will sup- 
port the weight of a man, thus showing them to be m comparatively 
sound condition, at least from 7 to 10 years after cutting. Even 
if they could be scattered, over the ground, their bowed form and 
elasticity would render it difficult to secure an intimate contact with 
the ground unless they were cut up into small pieces. Their rapid 
decay is still further hindered by the resinous character of the wood. 

FROST. 

Spruce is rather generally subject to splitting, particularly in very 
cold exposed situations. This defect is caused by an unequal shrink- 
age between the heart and sapwood under the action of a sudden drop 
in temperature below freezing. It may also be accentuated to some 
extent by the swaying of the tree m the wind when in a frozen con- 
dition. Spruce having this defect is known among lumbermen as 
"seamy" spruce. If the gram of the wood is straight, the defect 
will not cause much loss in sawmg; but if it is not straight, the tree is 
useless except for pulp. As frost crack results from climatic condi- 
tions, its prevention is not feasible. Spruce is not particularly sus- 
ceptible to the defect known as ''cup or ring shake." 

SUN. 

'i'rees grown in a dense forest usually have their boles well cleared 
of branches. Therefore when a portion of the stand is removed 
injury may result from sun scald through exposure of the remaining 
trees to direct insolation. The damage is generally confined to the 
side of the tree facing the southeast, and conditions are most favor- 
able to its occurrence in the late whiter and early spring. It may 
r(>sult from the cambium on that side of the tree becoming prema- 
turely active under the influence of a period of mild weather and a 
heavy freeze coming on afterwards and killmg the new growth. A 
thawing of one part of the tree under the influence of direct insolation 
while the rest remains frozen might also cause it. Separation of 
bark and wood and the collection of moisture in the cavity almost 
inevitably follow such thawmg and afford suitable opportunite for the 
entrance and development of fungous spores. Such a condition 
gives rise to a defect known as "spruce canker." 

INUNDATION AND ICE GIRDLING. 

Although spruce will grow and thrive in moist situations, it is 
permanently injured if not killed outright by inundation, depending 
upon the duration of the floodmg. Spruce is also killed by girdling ' 
when the inundation is accompanied by the formation of ice about the 
tree trunks. 

1 See D. 57. Bulletin 20. U. S. Deoartment of Asriculture. Division of Forestry, Oct. 1899. 



544, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



Plate Ml. 




Fig. 1.— Windfall after Logging. 




Fig. 2.-STAND Killed by Fire which Destroyed the Thim Soil Cover of Moss 
EXPOSING the Roots which Rest on the Underlying Rock Strata. 

DAMAGE TO SPRUCE. 



THE TMID SPRUCE. 25 



Young spruce may be severely damaged ])y the tearing off of its 
bark by deer when rubbing their antlers to remove the "velvet." 
Balsam, however, is much more liable to injury of this sort than is 
spruce, presumably because of its smoother bark and the healing 
offect of its resin. Hedgehogs also damage spruce to some extent 
by gnawing the bark. Squirrels and mice eat enormous c{uantities 
[)f seed, and undoubtedly do further damage by burrowing about 
the roots, thus exposmg them to danger of fungous infection. The 
rodents may even be the means themselves of inoculation. Scjuir- 
rels, particularly, feed on the fruiting bodies of different fungi, 
which can often be found on dead limbs along the trunk of spruce 
where they have been carried and partly eaten. 

GRAZING. 

Spruce is susceptible to very little injury by the browsing cither 
of deer or domestic animals. When very young the seedlings are 
liable to serious injury by being trampled by the grazing stock. 
If it were not for tliis, the presence of stock in young spruce stands 
would be of advantage in keeping the grass cropped down and the 
young hardwoods and balsam browsed. 

There is at the present time a tendency in parts of the spruce 
regions of New Hampshire and Vermont to allow pasture land to 
grow up to spruce, at the same time allowing stock to graze as long 
as they can find sufficient pasturage. Such an attempted dual use 
of the land is of advantage to neither the cattle grazed nor to the 
forests to be grown. The resulting stand of spruce is very ragged and 
uneven-aged, being (composed of large, spreading-crowned, scrubby 
trees interspersed by occasional thickets of yomiger growth. These 
latter come up in the openings which are from time to time cut off 
from grazing by the interlacing of the low crowns of the larger trees, 
which hinders the passage of the stock. On account of the gradual 
encroachment on the intervening areas of the crowns of the larger 
trees, many of these younger saplings are eventually suppressed. 

The yield from such a stand is very much less than the land is 
capable of producing; the cpiahty of the material in inferior, and 
much of it is useless even for pulp. Much time also is wasted in 
cutting the big-limbed, scrawny trees, which materially reduce the 
output per day, increase the cost, and yield heavy sticks difficult to 
handle. Thus the normal value of the land is reduced not only as a 
pasturage investment but as an investment for pulpwood production. 

WIND AND SNOW. 

The susceptibility of spruce to damage by windtlirow is very 
great on certain situations on account of the shallow nature of its 
root system. The foliage and young shoots may be considerably 
damaged bv hail and are thus rendered more vulnerable to insect 



26 BULLETIN 544, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

and fungous attacks. Wet snow and sleet are also responsible for 
considerable damage to young spruce. The weight of snow will 
often bend the young trees over beyond the point where they can 
recover their erect position. 

FUNGOUS GROWTH.I 

Spruce IS susceptible to injury by fungous growths of many sorts, 
which gain entrance into the wood through womids resulting from a 
variety of causes. Some of the fungi can not tlirive on a thrifty 
growing tree, but are secondary causes of death. Others, however, 
are miselective as to the thrift of their host. 

Three root parasites ^ which attack the spruce are Polyporus 
schweinitzii, Poria (Polyporus) subacida, and Fomes {Polyporus) 
annosus. Polyporus schweinitzii, the worst of these, is very preva- 
lent throughout the northern spruce and fir forests, where it attacks 
old and young trees alike, as does also Poria suhacida. To what 
extent Poria suhacida is the cause of the death of the tree, however, 
is not Iviiown, nor whether it attacks perfectly healthy trees; but it is 
known to be particularly destructive to dead timber. Fomes 
annosus, although very destructive in the forests of Europe, has not 
been accounted so in our eastern forests up to the present. These 
fungi usually spread through the soil and gain entrance to the tree 
tlii-ough the roots, which makes them difficult to detect and still more 
cfifficult to combat. While it will not do to hunt out diseased trees 
as is done in Europe, it may prove of advantage whenever an infected 
group of trees is fomid in lumbering to cut all nearby trees. Decay 
will not, in many cases, have extended so far up the trunk as to 
prevent one or two merchantable logs being obtained. 

Three wound parasites ^ which do a great deal of damage to spruce 
are Trametes pini ahietis, Fomes (Polyporus) pinicola, and Polyporus 
sulphureus. They gain entrance to the tree above ground through 
womids on the trunk and branches, and spread up and down the 
trunk from the pouit of infection to the topmost branches and to the 
roots. Trametes pini ahietis very commonlj^ attacks both the 
heartwood and sapwood of spruce and literally riddles them with 
small holes. Fomes pinicola, while it attacks fiving trees, is generally 
found on those individuals which have a weakened vitahty, and is 
one of the first to settle on such trees as have met death tlirough 
other causes. Polyporus sulphureus is found on spruce, but is more 
prevalent on hardwoods. There are undoubtedly many others of 

1 Those desiring detailed information concerning fungous diseases and how to combat Ihem should com- 
municate with the Division of Forest Pathology, Bureau of Plant Industry, Washington, D. C. 

2 Von Schrenck, Herman: " Some Diseases of New England Conifers," U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
Div. of Veg. Phys. and Path., Bulletin 25, 1900. 



THE EED SPRUCE, 27 

this type of fungous growth which prey upon the spruce, but tliose 
enumerjited are the most common and most destructive. 

It is obviously impossible to introduce intensive protective measures 
in our wild and micultivated forests. However, it is possible, and 
in the long run it will be profitable, to adopt such measures as will 
certainly aid in prolonging their health and usefuhiess. In the 
process of lumbering, particularly where the selection system is 
being employed, a careful scrutiny should be made of all trees which 
are to be left. Merchantable trees in a defective a)ndition, whatever 
then' size, should be removed in order to get the present value of 
their sound portions and at the same time prevent so far as possible 
their becoming a menace to the healthy trees remaining. This 
would include the cutting of standing dead and down timber when 
marketable. In similar manner, areas upon which the timber has 
been killed by fire, wmdfall, or serious insect attacks, should be 
lumbered immediately upon the discovery of the damage. If such 
timber is cut immediately, its value will be only slightly, if at all 
impaired, and it will yield as good lumber as before its death. This 
logging will, in certam instances, entail a somewhat greater expense. 
The disposal of slash by burning after lumbermg, usmg suitable 
safeguards, is another precaution which will be found desirable. If 
slash is allowed to remain on the ground, it constitutes a center of 
infection for fungous diseases and insect pests, thus jeopardizing the 
health of the remaining timber. 



Spruce has many insect enemies which prey upon its bark, wood, 
twigs, and foliage. Those known as bark and wood miners cause 
the greatest damage. They attack the old and valuable timber and 
are either primary or secondary causes of its death. Young trees 
are subject to injury by the white-j^ine weevil (Pissodes strohi Peck) 
and the spruce gaU louse (Chermes sp.). The latter affects the yomig 
twigs and the former the terminal shoots. As a result of their work 
the trees become deformed or stunted in growth. 

Among the bark miners the southern pine beetle {Derulroctonus 
frontalis Zimm.) and the eastern spruce beetle (Dendroctonus pice- 
aperda Hopk.) are considered the most serious pests. To the former 
has been attributed the dcstiniction of a vast amount of spruce timber 
in West Virgmia and the adjacent region, while the eastern spruce 
beetle is accounted responsible for the ravages of past years m 
Maine and New Hampshire. The attacks of the southern pme 
beetle are disastrous to both pme and spruce in areas south of Pemi- 

1 Those desiring detailed information concerning forest insect pests and methods of combating them 
should communicate with the Division of Forest Insect Investigations, Bureau of Entomology, W;ish- 
ington, D. C. 



28 BULLETIN cM, V. S. DEPAKTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

sylvania; but thus far the eastern, spruce beetle is credited with 
confining its baleful activity to the spruce alone and to areas north 
of West Virginia. Both of these insects attack perfectly sound, 
thrifty timber of the best quality — that is, trees from 10 to 12 inches 
in diameter and larger. Although they manifest a preference for 
standmg trees, they will breed in windf alien trees and, more rarely, 
in stumps and logs. 

Certain insects which infest the spruce are able to do their work only 
w^hen the vitality of the tree has been reduced either by a former 
insect attack or through disease. The wood miners work within the 
woody parts of the tree rather than in the cambium, and continue 
their work after its death, as well as in the log after it is cut. They 
are usually of no detriment to the health of the living tree, but their 
excavations into both the heartwood and sapwood cause wormbole 
defects and afford favorable means for the entrance of fungi. 

Wliile the insect enemies of spruce have many natural enemies, 
such as the bii'ds, parasitic insects, and fungi, and predacious insects 
which feed on and destroy their young, their ravages are not always 
hold in check by such means. Accordmg to Dr. A. D. Hopkins,^ 
forest entomologist of the U. S. Bureau of Entomology, the general 
methods to be adopted are as follows: 

For the southern pme beetle: (1) remove and burn the mfested 
bark from the trunks of the trees while still standmg; (2) place the 
infested portions of the trunks in water; or convert the infested trees 
into cordwood, lumber, or other products and burn the slabs or bark 
before the beetles leave the bark. 

For the eastern spruce beetle: (1) Regulate the winter cutting so 
as to include as many of the infested, dying, and dead trees as pos- 
si!)le, and place the logs from tneni in water before the fii'st of Jmie; 
(2) regulate the summer cutting so that as many recently attacked trees 
as possible may be cut and the bark removed from the trmiks juid 
stumps; (3) girdle, early in June, a large nimiber of trees, in the 
vicmity of infested localities where logging operations are to be 
carried on the following siunmer and winter, the girdled trees to be 
felled and the logs containing the broods of the insect attracted to 
them either peeled or placed in w^ater before the first of the succeeding 
June. The trees selected to be girdled should be sound and healthy 
and not less than 15 inches in diameter, and the girdling shoidd be 
done by hacking the tree wdth an ax through the bark into the sap- 
w^ood and around the trunk 2 or 3 feet above the base. 

A large percentage of dead spruce remains sound for a considerable 
period after being killed by these insects, and should be salvaged when 

1 U. S. Department of Agriculture, Div. Ent. Bulletin 28; also U. S. Department of Agriculture Farmers' 
Bulletin 476. 



THE RED SPRUCE. 29 

possiDle. Since the mature living timber is the most subject to attack, 
the cutting over of the remain hig virgin tracts, ushig an approximate 
diameter hmit of 14 inches at breast height, will greatly reduce the 
danger of subsequent serious damage arising from this source. 

GROWTH. 

Spruce varies more or less widely in growth, form, and development 
with the character ot the stand, the density ol the stocking, and the 
exposure and qiiahty of the soil. Virgin or old-growth stands present 
a distin.ctiy different set of conditions from the second-growth stands. 

The virgin stands are, without exception, of the natural selection 
form, in which each tree or smaU group of trees develops individualh-; 
all ages and sizes are represented, from seedhngs to overmatiu'c 
veterans, but the older age classes generally predominate. The 
second-growth stands, on the other hand, are in a lai-ge measure of 
even -aged form, either in groups or over whole areas; the trees all 
start at approximately the same time and develop as a unit rather 
than as distinct individuals. The conditions surrounding these two 
modes of development give rise to differences not only in the rate 
of growth in volume, height, aiul diameter, but in the form of bole 
of the individual tree. 

HEIGHT GROWTH. 

In the virgin forest or in one managed under the selection system, the 
height growth ol spruce bears no definite relation to its age. It is the 
soil quality, or site quality, whose influence is particularly manifested 
in height growth. Mature spruce in the virgin-forest types in whieli 
it characteristically occurs shows the same relative height develo]^- 
ment in Maine and the Adirondacks for the corresponding soil tjq^e^. 
The "spruce swamp" shows the least development in height, aver- 
aging for the tallest trees about 60 feet in Maine and 72 in the 
Adirondacks, followed by the "spruce flats" and "spruce slopes," on 
which the heights are nearly the same, namely, 70 feet in Maine and 
75 feet in the Adirondacks. Spruce reaches its best development on 
the "spruce and hardwood lands," with heights of 75 feet for Maine 
and 80 feet for the Adirondacks. The differences in average height 
for similar types in Maine and the Adirondacks are in large measure 
accounted for by the fact that the averages for the Adirondacks 
include a large percentage ot virgin growth, while those lor Maine are 
based almost entirely on figures from cull forests, which are lacking 
in the larger sizes. The inferior height growth in the "spruce swamp" 
and "spruce slope" situations is attributed to the fact that not only 
the growth in these situations is slower, but also that the timber in 
many cases is second growth. Stands in these situations are par- 
ticularly likely to be overturned by the wind on attaining a certain 



30 



BULLETIN 544, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 



height. The succeeding second growth may pass through the same 
stages, so that these stands may be relatively young. 

Table 4 gives height growth of selection stands in Maine, New 
Hampshire, the Adirondack?, and West Virginia. It will be noted 
that the heights in New Hampshire are below those in Maine and 
New York, particularly in the larger diameters. This is undoubtedly 
due to the fact that the New Hampshire data were cohected toward 
the southern edge of the White Moimtain spruce forests, where the pre- 
vaihng conditions are less favorable to spruce than those farther 
north. The values given for New York, on the other hand, are 
doubtless somewhat high because of the exclusive iise of dominant 
trees as a basis for the height curve. The average height develop- 
ment is slightly better in New Hampshire than in Maine and is 
somewhat better in Maine than in New York for the same type or site. 



Table 4. — Height growth of spruce (based on diameter). 



[CURVED. 



Diameter 
Ijreast 
high. 

Inches. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

.') 

6 

7 

S 

9 

10 

12.'.'..... 
13 

S::::::: 
!?::::::: 

18 

19 

20 

21 

1::;:::: 

24 

25 

26 

27 


Maine.' New Hampshire." 


New York. 3 


West Virginia." 


Height. 


Basis. 


Height. 


Basis. 


Height. Basis. 


Height. 


Basis. 


Feet. 
12 
IS 
24 
29 
34 
3S 
42 
46 
50 
53 
56 
59 
62 
65 
67 
70 

74 
76 
78 
79 
81 
83 
84 
86 
87 


Trees. 


Feet. 
11 

^3 
29 
34 
38 
43 
46 
50 
53 
56 
58 
61 
63 
65 
67 

r,.i 

69 

72 
72 
73 
74 
74 
75 
75 


Trees. 


Feet. 
11 
17 
23 
29 
34 
39 
43 
47 
50 
53 
56 
58 
60 
62 
64 
66 
6S 
70 

73 

74 
76 


Trees. 


Feet. 
10 
16 
22 

28 
34 

4;) 

46 
51 
56 
61 
()!■> 
71 
75 
79 
82 
86 
89 
92 
95 
97 
100 
102 
104 
105 
107 
109 
110 
111 
112 
113 
114 
115 
116 
117 


Trees. 


















5 
3 
6 
8 
13 
17 
31 
21 
2'S 
19 
24 
13 
13 
13 
19 
5 

5 
4 
4 

1 










1 
6 
8 
24 
19 

37 
29 
18 
23 
15 
5 
4 
2 


1 
3 
1 
5 
12 
26 
34 
42 
36 
46 
22 
39 
20 
29 
16 
27 
18 
21 
13 
8 
9 

6 
9 
6 
2 
2 


21 
36 
76 
75 
87 
76 
87 
54 
68 
33 
36 
24 
21 
13 
9 

'i 


1 














3 












28 














29 















30 














31 














32 














33 














1 

1 


34 





























260 




725 




250 




402 











1 Spruce slope type. Data collected hy R. S. Hosmer. 

2 Spruce slope t.vpe. Data collected by T. S. Woolsey, jr. 

3 Spruce hardwood type (dominant trees only). From data collected by the Conservation rommission 
of New York. 

* Spruce slope type. Data collected by John Foley. 

In the even-aged, second-growth forests, the individual tree is not 
subjected to long or varied periods of suppression. All of the trees 



THE RED SPRUCE. 



31 



which gain positions in the main crown cover start at about the 
same time and develop with very little interruption. Their height 
and age may consequently be easily correlated. The following table 
shows the average height of the dominant and intermediate trees 
comprising even- aged second-growth spruce stands of different ages 
and on sites of different quality, measured in Maine, New Hampshire, 
and Vermont in the fall of 1910. 



Table 5. — Height growih of spruce in even-aged, old pasture stands in Mai7ie, New 
Hampshire, and Vermont according to age and site qualities. 

[A vcroso lioighl of all domiiiaiit (iucliidinK codoininant) and intermediate trees in stands of diflerent ages.) 

[CUKVED.] 



Age. 


Site qualities. 


Basis. 


I. 


n. 


in. 


Years. 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

55 

60 

65 

70 

75 

80 

85 

90 

95 

100 


Fed. 
24 
31 
36 
42 
46 
51 
55 
58 
61 
64 
66 
68 
70 
72 
73 
74 
76 


Feel. 
19 
25 
31 
36 
40 
44 
47 
50 
53 
55 
57 

61 
63 
64 
65 
66 


Feet. 
14 
20 
25 
30 
34 
37 
40 
42 
45 
47 
49 
50 
52 
53 
55 
56 
57 


Sample 
plots. 


1 


1 


1 

6 
6 
8 
16 
14 
4 
1 




1 




59 



From sample plot data collected in 1910. 



For purposes of comparison the growth in height of Norway spruce 
is given in Table 6. 

Table 6. — Height growth of Norway spruce.^ 





Average 


Age. 


height of 




stand. 


Years. 


Feet. 


5 


8 


10 


16 




24 


20 


32 


25 


39 


30 


45 


35 


50 


40 


54 


45 


58 


50 


61 


55 


64 


60 


66 



• Based on all measurements of all trees in 11 plantations (8 Quality I and 3 Quahty II) 24-55 years old 
(ciir ed), made by Messrs. Tillotson, Barrows, and WilUamson, of the Forest Ser\ice, in 1911, in Rhode 
IsUind, Connecticut, Illinois, and Iowa. 



32 



BULLETIN 544, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRIGFLTURE. 



Tlioro is little doubt that Norway spruce makes a better height 
growth in early life than our native spruce. It is well to remember, 
however, in making comparisons in this particular instance, that the 
two grow mider entirely different sets of conditions. While the 
native spruce has developed from seed under the keenest possible 
competitive conditions, the Norway stock was in all likelihood nur- 
sery grown, so spaced when planted as to eliminate undesirable com- 
petition during early life, and possibly even cultivated. Then, too, 
such plantations in general have been made on a rather better soil 
even than that on which the average first quality red spruce stands 
are found. 

A comparison of the height growth of spruce seedlings in the forest 
and in the open is shown in Table 7. 



Table 



-Height groirth of spruce seedlings. 





Height. 


Age. 


In the 
forest.i 


In the 
open. 2 


Years. 
5 
10 


Feet. 
0.3 
0.7 


Feet. 
0. S 
2.4 


20 
25 
30 
35 
40 
45 


L5 
2.0 
2.6 
3.3 
4.1 
5.0 


ti.l) 
10. 
Hi.O 
2S. 
35.0 





' Based ou 615 trees. Data collected by R. S. Hosmer, 1901, on the New York State Forest Reserve. 
2 From p. ."JO, "Fore.st Conditions of Northern New Hampshire," Bulletin 55, Bureau of Foipstry, 
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



The column of height in the open is entirely conservative, as w 
noted by comparing it with Table 5. 



be 



DIAMETER GROWTH. 



The growth in diameter of spruce in virgin and other selection-form 
forests is, like the height, largely independent of age. The relation 
between diameter and age, however, can more readily be established 
than that between height and age, since merely from a stump anah^sis 
results closely approximating the truth can be obtained. 



THE RED SPRUCE. 



33 



Table 8. 



-Diameter and age of spruce in Maine. 
[(a) Averaged at^cording to age.] 



Class. 


a^ss'HS 


Average 
ago. 


Average 
butt di- 
ameter. 


Average 
length. 


Average 
top di- 
ameter. 




52 
120 
210 
218 
210 
125 
72 
29 
14 


4.9 
11.4 
20.0 
20.8 
20.0 
11.9 
6.9 
2.8 
1.3 


111.5 
138.7 
162.6 
182.6 
210. 8 
235.5 
260.3 
285.6 
311.6 


Imhes. 
11.5 
12.1 
12.9 
13.5 
15.0 
15.9 
16.0 
17.5 
18.5 


Feel. 
26.4 
2S.5 
29.9 
.30.3 
31.3 
32.2 
32.9 
34.4 
37.1 


Inches. 




8.5 
8.6 
8.9 
9.9 
10.0 
10.3 
11.5 
12,0 


150-175 jears 


175-200 years 


200-225 years. 


225-250 years 


250-275years 


275-300 years.. 


Over 300 . 




Average of all ^. 


1,050 




192.0 


\i \ • in a 


9.2 











[(b) Averaged according to butt diameter.] 



Class. 


Number 
of trees. 


Per cent 
of total 
number. 


Average 
age. 


Under 10 inches 


42 
97 
123 
158 
162 
117 
94 
76 
62 
43 
19 
57 


4.0 
9.2 
11.7 
15.1 
15.3 
11.2 
9.0 
7.3 
5.9 
4.1 
1.8 
5.4 


162.0 
170.1 
171.7 
174.0 
3 189. 1 
3 185.4 
197.7 
214.0 
217.1 
228.7 
230. 1 
244.8 


10-11 inches 


11-12 inches 


12-13 inches. 


13-14 inches 


14-15 inches 


15-16 inches 


16-17 inches 


17-18iuchcs 


18-19 inches 


19-20inches 


Over 20 inches 




* 


1,0.50 


i 




1 



1 From a special report "On the Growth of Spruce, by Austin Gary, in the Secor.d .Vnnual Report of the 

sorest Commissioner of the State of Mame, 1894. In explanation of the foregoine table Mr Carv savs- 

"to all, 1,050 spruce logs were e.xamined for tliis purpose, taken on drives and mill vards. The len4h and 

I ^ diameters of each log were measured, and the rings of the butt counted to ascertain the age About 

^ two-thirds of the logs v/ere grown m the western part of the State on the di-amage of the Androscoei'iii The 

I remainder were partly from the Kennebec, partly from the Aroostock branches of the Penobscot A -^n-all 

( ^hFilu?!^ w-h* S ^°"^ measured were cut for pulp, which renders the selection all the more representative. 

The tables which embody the results of the work need, it would seem, very little explanation. The trees 

: were first divided into age classes, and the dimensions of the logs in e4ch class av i^'''^^- -ineiiees 



eie dl^^ded accordmg to butt diameters and the average age ascertained for trees of each size The 
most usable re^ilt oi the work is the grand average of thesi facts for the whole 1,050 logs. The a vera- e 
, dimensions of the logs represent a tree containing about 23 cubic feet, or say 120 board feet and this w^s 

^fsTto tho^'.r9n'^^' ^^ ^'^ ^T"""?-,, ^^^l'? *" '^1^°^ 2 °"^^° ^'^^t ^°' «t™p Ld 7 Zre for the?op adcmil 
rhJ., fiL^^i?" niore years for the height growth of the stump, then dividing contents by age gives thi 
figures fifteen-hundredths cubic feet. That is to say, a spruce tree on the average and throuehout its life 
,mti cut, mamtams a growth of 1 cubic foot in six aiid tw^thii-ds vears. In adult Ufethel?owtrpertee 

' °3u^^ considerably greater. In young seedlings it would for many years be less. The percelitaec of 

, giowth to stand can not be immediately derived h'om these figures " peicentagc ol 

[In connection with the mformation just quoted, it seems evident that the words "log" and "tree" ire 

I used sj-nonymously in referring to the ^' used length."-Author] '-'-"^^oiui' 'og ana tree are 

2 A log of these average dimensions contains 23 cubic feet, or about 120 board feet. 

1 ,..1:^/1^^"?';^ ^""^t' of c^iirse, is not as a rule older than a H.Wnch tree. The irregularity shown in the series 
would doubtless be corrected if the larger number of trees was taken ^b^'^uuy snown m tiie sei iCb 

r^itT^^^^ °^ ^? pine logs: A-e, 102.8; butt diameter, 16.1; length, 30.3; top diameter 11 \ Iok of these 

j dimensions contams .30 cubic feet, or about 175 boai-d feet. i' ^,x^^i,..i, ii. a lOt, oz cnese 

j It IS in most cases of little practical value to the lumberman to 
I .know the direct relation between the actual age and the diameter of 
I trees in a selection forest. A knowledge of the length of time required 
for a tree to grow from 1 inch diameter class to the next is, however 
I important. Tables 9, 10, and 11 show this as well as the corre- 
> sponding ratejj^rowth per annum of each diameter class.^ 

1 Besides showing these values based on an a verage^i^rees measured, the WesTvi^ginia^dTdkonl 
dack tables show absolute ma:umum and average maximum values as well. These are obtained by using 

Sw f hr//'rf °*'"° "^^-^'^"'^ ^^^ ^'-^'^Se minimum growth conditions, eliminating all periods ^^^nI 
show the effect of suppr^sion. » i- 

\ 84949°— Bull. 544—17 3 



34 BULLETI]Sr 544, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

Table 9. — Diameter growth of spruce in Maine, btj types.^ 
[Based on the last 20 years.] 



[CURVED.; 





Lower spruce 
and hardwood 
laud, 564 trees. 


Upper spruce 
and hardwood 
land, 379 trees. 


Lower spruce 
slope, 144 trees. 


Upper spruce 
slope, 87 trees. 


Average of all 

types, 1,174 

trees. 


Diameter breast 
high. 


Peri- 
odic 
annual 
growth. 


Time 

re- 
quired 

to grow 
1 inch. 


Peri- 
odic 
annual 
growth. 


Time 

re- 
quired 
to grow 
1 inch. 


Peri- 

ocUc 

annual 

growth. 


Time 

re- 
quired 
to grow 
1 inch. 


Peri- 
odic 
annual 
growth. 


Time 

re- 
quired 
to grow 
1 inch. 


Peri- 
odic 
annual 
growth. 


Time 

re- 
quired 

to grow 
1 inch. 


Inches. 
5 


Inches. 
0. 030 
.048 
. 003 
.080 
.098 
.114 
.120 
.136 
.142 
.146 
.148 
.150 
.148 
. 146 
.142 
.138 


Years. 
28 
21 
16 
13 
10 
9 
8 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 


Inches. 
0. 054 
. 0C.3 
.071 
.078 
.085 
.091 
.096 
.102 
.109 
.112 
.112 
.109 
.106 
.106 
.106 
.106 


Years. 
19 
16 
14 
13 
12 
11 
10 
10 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 


Inches. 
0.015 
.022 
.032 
.046 
.067 
.093 
.113 
.124 
.127 
.126 
.122 
.116 
.110 
.103 
.096 
.091 


Years. 
67 
45 
31 
22 
15 
11 
9 
8 
8 
8 
8 
9 
9 
10 
10 
11 


Inches. 
0.026 
.030 
.034 
.038 
.041 
.044 
.047 
.049 
.052 
.055 
.058 
.060 
.002 
.062 
.0C2 
.0(0 


Years. 
38 
33 
29 
26 
24 
23 
21 
20 
19 
18 
17 
17 
10 
16 
10 
17 


Inches. 
0.034 
.045 
.056 
.Of 8 
.081 
.093 
.105 
.115 
.122 
. 126 
. 12!) 
.130 
.129 
.125 
.122 
.110 


Years. 
29 





22 


7 


18 




15 


9 


12 


10 


11 


11 


10 


12 


9 


13 


8 


14 


8 


15 


8 






17 


8 


18. 


s 


19 


8 


20 


9 






Average 


.141 


7| .104 


10 


.112 


9 


.052 


19 


. 119 


8 



1 From data secured by R. S. Hosmrr, 1902, on partially culled land in Squaw Mountain Township, 
Me., and including trees of all crown classes. 

Table 10. — Diameter groivth of spruce in Nevj York.^ 

[All types, spruce-hardwood type chiefly; dominant trees only.) [curved.] 



Diameter 
breast 
high. 


Absolute maxi- 
mum. 


Average maximum. 


Average. 


Basis. j 


Periodic 
annual 
growth. 


Time 
required 
to grow 

1 inch. 


Periodic 
annual 
growth. 


Time 
required 
to grow 

1 inch. 


Periodic 
atmual 
growth. 


Time 
required 
to grow 
1 inch. 


Inches. 

21 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

s'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 

9 


Inches. 
0.176 
.218 
.253 

!309 
.324 
.331 
.328 
.317 
.297 
.270 
.245 
.216 
.187 
.150 
.132 
.110 


Years. 
5.7 
4.6 
4.0 
3.5 
3.2 
3.1 
3.0 
3.0 
3.2 
3.4 
3.7 
4.1 
4.6 
5.3 
6.4 
7.6 
9.1 


Inches. 
0.111 
.140 
.164 
.180 
.205 
.217 
.223 
.223 
.219 
.210 
.197 
.184 
.168 
.150 
.128 
.110 
.093 


Years. 
9.0 
7.1 
6.1 

5.4 

J:§ 

4.5 
4.5 
4.6 
4.8 
5.1 
5.4 
0.0 
0.7 
7.8 
9.1 
10.8 


Inches. 
0.046 

.061 
.075 
.089 
.101 
.110 
.115 
.118 
.121 
.124 
.124 
.123 
.119 
.112 
.101 
.089 
.076 
.064 
.051 


Years. 
21.7 
16.4 
13.3 
11.2 
9.9 
9.1 
8.7 
8.5 
8.3 
8.1 
8.1 
8.1 
8.4 
8.9 
9.9 
11.2 
13.2 
15.6 
19. 6 


Trees. 


1 


1 




io""! 

42 ! 
32 1 
57 
40 
65 
44 
27 
19 
25 
15 
4 
4 
2 
1 


10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 


19 










20 



























393 



1 From data collected by the Conservation Commission of New York in 1912 on culled land in Essex and 
Herkimer Coimties. 

2 The time required to grow to a diameter of 1 inch at breasthf^ight was 11 years for " absolute max- 
imum" growth conditions, 17 years for "average maximum," and 36 years for "average." 



THE RED SPRUCE, 



35 



Table 11. — Diameter groioth of spruce (virg'n) in West Virginia.'^ 

[Spruce slope type.] [curved.] 



Diameter 
l)reast 
high. 


Absolute maximum. 


Average maximum. 


Average. 


B^isis. 
Trees. 


Periodic 
annual 
growth. 


Time 
required 
to grow 
1 inch. 


Periodic 
annual 
growtli. 


Time 
re<iuired 
to grow 
linch. 


Periodic 
annual 
growth. 


Time 
required 
to grow 
1 inch. 


Inches. 

2 1 


Inches. 
0.292 


Years. 
.5.0 
4.5 
4.3 
4.0 
3.8 
3.6 
3.5 
3.4 
3.4 
3.3 
3.3 
3.3 
3.4 
3.4 
3.4 
3.5 
3.6 
3.8 
3.9 
4.1 


Inches. 
0. 126 
.138 
.148 
.1.57 
.166 
.174 
.182 
.188 
.193 
.198 
.201 
.203 
.204 
.202 
.200 
.196 
.192 
.186 
.178 
.172 


Years. 
7.9 
7.2 
6.8 
6.4 
6.0 
5.7 
5.5 
5.3 
5.2 
5.1 
5. 
4.9 
4.9 
5.0 
5.0 
5.1 
5.2 
5.4 
5.6 
.5.8 


Inches. 
0.051 
.0.56 
.060 
.064 
.0-^.9 
.074 
.079 
. 084 
. 090 

.09;; 

.102 
.106 
.109 
.110 

.111 

.110 
.108 
.106 
.103 
.100 


Years. 
19.0 
17.9 
16.7 
1.5.6 
14. 5 
13. 5 
12.7 
11.9 
11.1 
10.4 
9.S 
9.4 
9.2 
9.1 
9.0 
9.1 
9.3 
9.4 
9.7 
10.0 


2 .220 




3 

4 

5 .... 
6 

s !...! 

9 

10 

tE. 

M 

r> 

li 

k'.'.V.V. 
19 

2) 


.235 
.250 
.262 
.274 
.284 
.291 
.296 
.300 
.300 
.300 
.298 
.294 
.290 
.282 
.275 
.255 
. 254 
.243 






i" 

3 
1 

12 
24 
27 
37 
28 
42 
19 
33 

13 ! 
17 ! 
8 i 
20 1 






290 



1 Prom data collected by John Foley in 1903 in Greenbrier County and including trees in all cro^v^l classes. 

2 The time required to grow to a diameter of 1 inch at breastheight was 7 years for "absolute maxi- 
mum" growth conditions, 11 years for "average maximum," and 26 years for "average." 

Diameters in even-aged stands vary directly with the age of the 
stand, so that the relationship of one of the other is of considerable 
importance. This relationship is brought out in Table 12, which is 
based on the average diameter growth of the dominant (including 
codominant) and intermediate trees. 

Table 12. — Diameter growth of red spruce in even-aged, old pasture stands in Maine, 
New Hampshire, and Vermont, according to age and site qualities. 

[Average diameter breast high < of all dominant (including codominant) and intermediate trees in stands 
of different ages.] 



Age. 


Site qualities. 


Basis. 


I. II. 


III. 


Years. 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

55 

60 

65 

70 

75 

80 

85 

90 

95 

100 


Inches. Inches. 

3.8 3.1 

4.9 4.0 
5.9 4.9 

6. 8 5. 7 

7. 5 6. 3 
8.1 6.9 
8. 6 7. 4 
9.0 7.7 
9.3 8.0 
9. 5 ; 8. 2 
9. 7 1 8. 5 
9.9 1 8.7 

10.1 I 8.9 

10.2 1 9.0 
10.4 i 9.2 
10. 6 - 9. 4 
10.8 9.5 


Inches. 
2.4 
3.2 
3.9 
4.6 
.5.2 

6.1 
6.4 
6.7 
7.0 
7.2 
7.4 
7.6 
7.8 
8.0 

U 


Sample 
plots. 


1 


1 


1 
6 
6 
8 
16 
14 
4 
1 




1 




59 



From sample plot data collected in 1910. 



36 



BULLETIN 544, V. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGEICin.TURE. 



For purposes of comparison Table 13, giving diameter growfli of 
Norway spruce (Picea excelsa) is included. 

Table 13. — Diameter growth of Nornay spruce.^ 

[curved.] 





Average 


Age. 


diameter 


l)rcast hi^h 




of stand. 


Years. 


Jnches. 


.5 


1.0 


10 


2.8 


1.5 


4.4 


20 


.5.7 


25 


6.S 


30 




.35 


Ki 


40 


9.0 


45 


9.(5 


.50 


10.2 


55 


10. .S 


60 


11.4 



> Based on the measurement of all trees in 11 plantations (S Qualities I and 3 Quality II) 24-55 years 
old, made bj' Messrs. Tillotson, Barrows, and Williamson in 1911, in Rhode Island, eoiinecticut, Illinois, 
iuid Iowa. 

Even more than with height comparisons it is necessary to bear 
in mind the influence of soil, spacing, and cultural methods on the 
(hameter growth of volunteer stands and plantations when drawing 
conclusions from the foregoing figures as to the relative growing 
qualities of red and Norway spruce. 

SECTIONAL AREA GROWTH. 

The growth in sectional area, or the increase in the superficial 
area of a given cross section, is effective as a means of comparison 
for even-aged stands of different ages or of the same age but of 
(Ufferent site qualities. Either the total basal area of the stand at 
a definite height from the ground, usually at breasth eight, or the 
basal area of the average tree, may be employed. Table 14, covermg 
second-growth, even-aged spruce stands of the old pasture type 
shows the relative average total basal area of stands of different 
ages and site quality based (1) on all green trees; (2) on green trees 
6 inches and over; (3) on all dominant trees; and (4) on all domi- 
nant and ultermediate trees. 



THE EED SPBUCE. 



37 



Table 14.— Breast-high sectional area growth of red spruce in even-aged, old pasture stands 
in Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont, according to age and site qualities. 



QUALITY I. 



[curved.] 



All green trees. ^^^-^row^'"" "'"SateTreis"''" Dominant trees only. 



Trees 
per 



Basal 
area. 



No. 
1 , r,so 

1.295 
l,l!a 
9S0 
8S2 
SOS 
752 
707 
668 
640 
620 
603 
590 
579 
568 
558 
649 



Aver- 
age 

diam- 
eter 

breast 

high. 



Inche.1. 
3.6 
4.5 
5.3 
6.0 
6.7 
7.3 
7.9 
8. .4 
8.8 
9.2 
9.5 
9.8 
10.1 
10.3 
10. 5 
10.7 
10.8 



Trees 
per 
acre. 



Basal 
area. 



Sq.ft. 



etor 
breast 
high. 



6.0 
6.7 
7.3 

7.8 
8.3 
8.8 
9.2 
9.5 
9.8 
10.0 
10.2 
10.4 
10. 5 
10.7 
10.8 
10.9 



Trees 
per 



No. 
1,294 
1,076 



Basal 
area. 



Sq.ft. 
102 
140 
169 
190 
205 
216 
225 
232 
23S 
242 
247 
2.50 
253 
256 
259 
262 
264 



Aver- 
age 

diam- 
eter 

breast 

high. 



4.9 
5.9 
6.8 
7.5 
8.1 
8.6 
9.0 
9.3 
9.5 
9.7 
9.9 
10.1 
10.2 
10.4 
10.6 
10.8 



Trees 
per 
acre. 



Basal 
area. 



Aver- 
age 

diam- 
eter 

breast 

high. 



Inches. 
4.5 



9.1 
9.5 
9.9 
10.2 
10.4 
10.7 
10.8 
11.0 
11.2 
11.3 
11.5 



QUALITY II. 



1,996 


98 


3.0 








1,603 


84 


3.1 


566 


40 


1,520 
1,285 


120 
142 


3.8 
4.5 








1,316 
1,062 


115 
139 


4.0 
4.9 


530 
504 


60 
81 








1,142 


102 




260 


58 


6.4 


890 


157 


5.7 


484 


101 


1,032 


1S2 


5.7 


335 


88 


7.0 


774 


171 


6.3 


470 


119 


949 


199 


6.2 


403 


122 


7.4 


697 


181 


6.9 


459 


136 


880 


215 


6.7 


467 


155 


7.8 


643 


189 


7.4 


451 


151 


830 


229 


7.1 


497 


ISO 


8.1 


605 


196 


7.7 


443 


162 


789 


242 


7.5 


516 


199 


8.4 


575 


201 


8.0 


435 


172 


756 


253 


7.8 


530 


214 


8.6 


551 


206 


8.2 


427 


181 


732 


262 


8.1 


540 


226 


8.8 


532 


210 


8.5 


420 


188 


708 


270 


8.4 


544 


235 


8.9 


516 


213 


8.7 


413 


194 


6S9 


278 


S.6 


544 


244 


9.1 


503 


210 


8.9 


407 


200 


672 


284 


8.8 


542 


251 


9.2 


492 


220 


9.0 


401 


205 


656 


290 


9.0 


540 


257 


9.3 


482 


223 


9.2 


395 


209 


642 


295 


9.2 


537 


263 


9.5 


472 


226 


9.4 


390 


213 


632 


300 


'■' 


533 


268 


9.6 


463 


228 


9.5 


385 


217 



5.4 
6.2 
6.S 
7.4 
7. S 
8.2 
8.5 
8.8 
9.1 
9.3 
9.5 
9.7 
9.8 
10.0 
10.2 



QUALITY IK. 



2,803 


81 


23 








2,134 


67 


2.4 


678 


27 


1,870 


98 


3.1 








1,620 


90 


3.2 


623 


42 


1,540 
1,357 


115 
131 


3.7 
4.2 








1,394 
1,074 


109 
124 


3.9 
4.6 


580 
548 


57 
73 









1,224 


147 


4.7 


311 


61 


6.6 


924 


136 


5.2 


526 


90 


1,129 


161 


5.1 


386 




6.5 


827 


145 


5.7 


514 


105 


1,055 


175 


5.5 


455 


115 


6.8 




153 


6.1 


505 


119 


996 


187 


5.9 


515 


138 


7.0 


703 


159 


6.4 


496 


129 


945 


198 


6.2 


549 


156 


7.2 


664 


164 


6.7 


488 


138 


903 


208 


6.5 


572 


171 


7.4 


634 


168 


7.0 


480 


146 


866 


216 


6.7 


587 


183 


7.6 


609 


172 


7.2 


472 


1.53 


838 


224 


7.0 


597 


193 




588 


176 


7.4 


464 


158 


813 


230 


7.2 


606 


201 


7.8 


569 


180 


7.6 


457 


164 


790 


235 


7.4 


602 


207 


8.0 


.551 


183 


7.8 


450 


168 


772 


242 


7.6 


596 


212 


8.1 


.533 


186 


8.0 


443 


173 




246 
251 


7.7 
7.8 


58S 
580 


217 
222 


8.2 
8.3 


516 
499 


189 
192 


8.2 

8.4 


436 
430 


177 
181 


750 



2.7 
3.5 
4.3 
5.0 
5.0 
6.1 
6.5 
6.9 
7.2 



Based on 59 sample plots, measured in 1910. Total 



38 BULLETIN 544, U. S. DEPAETMENT OF AGEICULTUEE. 

VOLUME GROWTH. 

The increase in volume of trees growing in the virgin, or selection, 
forest is seldom considered on the basis of age for reasons already 
discussed under height and diameter growth. We are not much 
interested, for the present at least, in knowing how long it took, or 
would take again, to produce a spruce of a certain size inider similar 
virgin forest conditions. Most lumbermen are desirous of knowing 
what can be expected of trees of given sizes for the immediate future. 
The conditions under which such growth is likely to take place will 
vary widely, so widely in fact that general tables of growth would 
be of little value. A local table made uj) to fit the special conditions 
of each case is much preferable. Such a table is readily prepared 
from volume or taper tables and the general data abcady presented. 

In preparing a table of this kind it is usually assumed that a tree 
now 10 inches in diameter at breastheight will, when it has grown 
to a diameter of 11 inches, have the volume of the 11-inch trees with 
which it is at present associated. Diameter growth figm-es thus form 
the basis of the calculations. If the future growth of a virgin stand 
is to be forecasted, the diameter growth figures employed must be 
those derived from trees growing imder these average conditions. 
Usually, however, an immediate partial cutting is contemplated. 
Wliether the growth figures for the " average maximum " or " absolute 
maximum" should be used will depend upon the extent to which the 
cuttiiig opens up the stand. Conditions would need to be exceedingly 
favorable to warrant using the ''absolute maximum" figures of 
diameter growth. It might even happen that the "average max- 
imum" would show too high results, particularly for forecasting 
results within the succeeding decade. Spruce does not respond 
immediately to an opening up of the crown cover. Intermediate 
trees of from 6 to 10 inches in diameter may not respond at all inside 
of 12 or 15 j^ears. 

The following exam])le will suffice to show how these data are 
combined : 

Suppose one desires to ascertain the probable voliune of the 14-inch 
trees in an average stand of spruce in New York 15 years after a 
cutting to a 16-mch diameter limit. Assuming such a sized tree 
to be able to take full advantage of growth conditions and develop 
at the full ''average maximum" rate, the amiual increment in 
diameter would be, according to Table 10, 0.150 mch. In 15 years, 
consequently, it woidd have added 2.25 inches to its diameter and 
become a 16.25-inch tree. The average 14-inch tree, according to 
Table 4, is 62 feet tail and has a volume according to Table 9 of 



THE RED SPRUCE. 



39 



13G ^ board feet. A 16.25-incli tree similarly is 66 feet tall and lias a 
volume (interpolated) of 188 hoard feet. Thus the increased growth 
during the 15 years is 52 board feet, equivalent to 38 per cent. 
When the future yield of whole stands is to be computed a tabular 
arrangement of such values will be found convenient.^ 







Corresponding 
volume. 




Diameter. 




Corresponding vohime value 
from(4).i 






















diameter 

class. 


rfgl^?.^ 


Direct 
from 


Values 
in (3) 
curved. 


10 years 


20 vears 


30 years 


10 years 


20 years 


30 years 






volume 
table. 


hence. 


hence. 


hence. 


hence. 


hence. 


hence. 


1 


2 


3 


4 


' 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 




Feet. 


Board ft. 


Board ft. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Boardft. 


Boardft. 


Boardft. 


8 


47 


34 


31 


10.2 


12.5 


14.7 


01 


107 


162 


9 


50 


43 


4S 


11.2 


13.4 


15. G 


77 


128 


188 


10 


53 


55 


58 


12.1 


14.2 


16.3 


97 


148 


209 


n 


56 


82 


75 


13.0 


14.9 


16.9 


118 


107 


227 


12 


58 


97 


95 


13.8 


15.7 


17. 5 


138 


191 


245 


13 


60 


120 


118 


14.7 


10.4 


18.0 


162 


212 


2G0 


14 


62 


130 


143 


15.5 


17.0 




185 


230 


278 


15 


64 


150 


170 


16.3 


17.6 


IS. 8 


209 


248 


288 


16 


66 


200 


200 


17.1 


IS. 2 


19.3 


233 


2G7 


306 


17 


68 


230 


230 


17.9 


18.9 


19.8 


257 


291 


324 


IS 


70 


200 


2C0 














19 


71 


290 


295 






1 






20 


73 


320 


331 


















i 







' Interpolated. 

It will be noted that in column 3 the vakies have not been interpolated, although they might well have 
been. Instead they have been read directly from the volume table and the irregularities evened off in 
column 4 by curving. The values in columns 8, 9, and 10 are interpolated from column 4 in order to eliminate 
tlie irregularity that would otherwise result from rounding off the diameter values in columns 5, 6, and 7 
and reading direct from column 4. Curving of the values in 8, 9, and 10 may in some in-stances be necessary. 

Tlie figm-es contamed in Tables 15 and 16 show the comparative 
development of spruce in the Adirondacks and West Virginia under 
"average maximum" growth conditions. Unfortunately, the data 
were insufficient upon which to extend the New York table above 120 
yeai-s. An inspection of the height and diameter tables upon which 
tliis is based, however, shows the growth of each very much slack- 
ened. Inspection of Table 15 itself shows that the periodic annual 
gi-ovv'th culminated in the ninetieth year, while the mean annual 
would unquestionably culminate under 150 years. In West Virginia, 
on the other hand, the periodic anuual growth does not begm to 
slaclcen mitil the one hundred and fiftieth year, while the mean annual 
growth continues unabated until the two hundred and liftieth year. 

1 Uader ordinary circumstances it would be sufficiently accurate to use the value corresponding to a 
14-inch tree GO feet in height which, according to Table 29, is 130 board feet. In computations of this sort 
however, the volume table values had better be interpolated so as to secure a closer reading. Thus, it 
may be assumed that if a 14-inch tree has a volume of 130 board feet when GO feet tall and IGO board fe't 
when 70 feet tall, when it is 62 feet tall its volume will be 13G board feet (130 (160-130) by 0.2). 

2 The tabular form indicates all the steps to be taken in making up such a table of values for red spruce in 
New York under "average maximum" growth conditions. 



40 



BULLETIN 544, IT. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICXTLTUEE. 



Table 15. — Cubic volume growth of red spruce in the Adironclacks, N. Y. (For "aver- 
age maximum" diameter groivth conditions.) 

[curved.] 





Diameter 






Periodic 


Mean 


Age. 


breast 


Height. 


Volume. 


amivial 


amiiial 




high. 






grov.'th. 


grow1;h. 


Years. 


Inches. 


Fee, 


Cu./t. 


Cu. ft. 


Cu. ft. 


10 


0.5 


s 








L'O 


1.3 


13 


1 






20 




40 


4.0 


29 




50 


5.7 


37 


3.9 




0. 078 


00 


7.x 


46 


8.0 


0.41 


.133 


70 


10.0 


53 


15.0 


.70 


.214 


SO 


12.0 


58 


23.0 


.80 


.288 


90 


13.. S 


62 


32.0 


.90 


.356 


100 


15.2 


65 


40.0 


.80 


.400 


110 


16.3 


67 


47.0 


.70 


.427 


120 


17.3 


68 


54.0 


.70 


.450 



Dominant trees— spruce hardwood type. 

Tliis table is a combination of arowth-diameter Table 10, hei'.,'ht Table 4, and volume Table 40. 

Data collected by the Conservation Commission ot New York in 1912 in Essex and Heriamer Counties. 

Table 16. — Cubic volume growth of red spruce in We.'it Virginia. (For "average yyuiri 
mum'^ diameter growth conditions.) 





Diameter 






Periodic 


Mean 


Age. 


breast 


Heigbt. 


Vohnne. 


annual 


annual 




high. 






growlii. 


growth. 


Year.i. 


Inches. 


Feet. 


Cv./t. 


Cu.fl. 


Cv. ft. 


10 


9 


10 








20 
30 


2.1 
3.5 
5.1 

6. 8 




i .1 


' 1 


40 
50 


34 




:: 1 


4.7 




0.094 


60 


.S.6 


54 


10.7 


0.00 


.178 


70 


10.5 


64 


19.0 


.83 


.271 


80 


12.5 


73 


30. 


1.10 


.375 


90 


14.5 


81 


43 


1.30 


.478 


100 


16. 4 


87 


60. 


1.70 


.600 


110 


18.2 


93 


7S.0 


1.80 


.709 


120 


19.9 


97 


96.0 


1.80 


.800 


130 


21.4 


100 


115 


1.90 


.885 


140 


22.8 


103 


134.0 


1.90 


.957 


150 


24.2 


106 


154.0 


2.00 


1.027 


160 


25.4 


108 


174.0 


2.00 


1.088 


170 


26.6 


109 


193.0 


1.90 


1.135 


180 


27.6 


HI 


212.0 


1.80 


1.178 


190 


28. 6 


112 


230.0 


1.80 


1.2U 


200 


29.5 


113 


247.0 


1.70 


1.235 


210 


30.3 


114 


263.0 


1.60 


1.252 


220 


31.0 


114 


279.0 


1.60 


1.268 


230 


31.7 


115 


293.0 


1.40 


1.274 


240 


32.3 


1!6 


307.0 


1.10 


1.279 


250 


32.9 


116 


321.0 • 


1.40 


1.284 


2i;0 


33.5 


117 


.334.0 


!.:'0 


1.2S.5 


270 


34.0 


117 


347.0 


1.30 


1.285 



All trees— spruce slope type. 

This table is a combination of gro wtli- liameter Table 11 , height Table 4, and volume Table 41 . 

Data collected by John Foley in 1903 in Greenbrier Coimty. 

While similar data are not available for either Maine or New Hamp- 
shire, a comparison of the ''Lower spruce and hardwood" and even 
of the " Average-of-aU-type " values of Maine (Table 9) with the 
"Average" values of New York (Table 10) indicates a better average 
development in Maine than in New York. Adequate figures for New 



THE RED SPRUCE. 



41 



Hiimpsliire would undoubtedly show somowhat bettor general de- 
velopment there than in Maine. 

Tlie growth in volume of trees in even-aged stands may be deter- 
mined in a manner similar to that just described. In this case, how- 
ever, the diameter growth instead of being calculated by arbitrary 
periods, such as 10 or 20 years, would be expressed in terms of total 
age. If the rate of volume growth is to be determined for natural 
stands imdisturbed by thinnings or other treatment which would 
tend to interfere with the process of elimination by natural competi- 
tion, the diameter growth should be based on the average growth of 
all green trees of the even-aged normal stands of different ages. If, 
however, thinnings are contemplated which wiU enable the trees com- 
posing a stand to grow at their maximum rate with the minumum 
of competition, the basis for growth should be the mean average of 
the dominant and intermediate (Table 12) or, under the most favor- 
able conditions, the dominant trees only of the even-aged normal 
stands of different ages. 

STANDS AND YIELDS. 

The yield of virgin or selection growth spruce, both present and 
future, varies widely from one type to the other and within the same 
type in different regions. It is not possible under the circumstances 
to discuss the subject in such (Ictail as to cover the fuU range of 
conditions which local variations impose, nor are the data available 
for such discussion. Given certain fmidamental data, the range of 
reliabiht}^ of which is less restricted than would be yield tables based 
on the widely variable conditions existing in our present virgm and 
cull spruce selection forests, the yield for any particular tract can 
be readily computed. 

Aside from that already presented for the various regions under the 
headings of growth in height, diameter, and volume, the only infor- 
mation needed is the enumeration of the stands^ the yield of which is 
to be determined and their average composition as to size and species 
calculated and tabulated for use in the following: convenient form: 



Diam- Average number 

eter, 

breast ^., ^ 
Wgh. Spruce. ^Othe^^ 


3f trees. 
Total. 


Spruce 

left to 

grow 

(average 

number). 


1 2 


3 


4 


5 


Inches. 











> In the appendix (Tables 50-53, inclusive, on pp. 94-97), will be found stand tables prepared from such 
enumerations in vii-gin forest growth of the spruce slope type. The associated species are included as a 
matter of comparison. Incidentally, these tables show in a broad general way the relative production 
per unit of area of the dilTerent regions which they repre.«ent. It must not bo understood, however, that 
any claim is made that they show exact average conditions throughout their respective regions. 



42 BUIXETIN Tht-l, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

Having decided whether or not, during the period for which the 
future yi*eld is to be forecasted, cuttmg will take place and in what 
amount, a volume growth table such as that outlined on page 41 
would be prepared. If a cutting is contemplated, there should be 
indicated on the stand table, as column 5, the average number of 
spruce trees of the different diameters which will be left for future 
growth. The present yield per acre of the stand would then be 
determined by multiplying the values in column 2 of the stand table 
by those in column 4 of the volume growth table. Tlie future 
yield would similarly be determined by multiplying the values in 
colmnn 5 of the stand table by those in colimms 8, 9, 10, etc., of the 
growth table. 

The yield of second-growth stands may be arrived at in a manner 
similar to that just outlined. The more direct method, however, 
is to measure all the trees on sample areas in stands of typical devel- 
opment and Iviiown age. Tlie height, diameter, volume, and aU 
other data for each plot are determined separately; and these various 
data are finally combined into a table on the basis of the ago of the 
trees and the site quality to which they belong. Such a table appears 
below for normally stocked second-growth stands measured in Maine, 
New Hampshire, and Vermont. This table is based on data col- 
lected in mithmned stands of spruce which have come up on formerly 
cleared lands. So far as concerns the production of cubic volume 
and correspondingly, of cordwood volume, these values represent 
approximately the maximum for their respective ages and site classes. 
The table is thus suitable for use without modification in predicting 
the future yields of stands maintained for the production of pulpwood. 



THE EED SPRUCE. 



43 



Table 17. — Yield of red spruce in old-field stands. 

[Based on the yield of dominant, codorainant, and intermediate trees only.] 

QXTALITY I. 



QUALITY II. 



QUALITY IIL 



Age. 

Tears. 
20 
25 
30 
35 
40 
45 
50 
55 
00 
05 
70 
75 
80 
85 
90 
95 
100 


Trees 
per acre. 


Basal 
area. 


Average 

diameter 

l^reast 

high. 


Height. 


Yield per acre.i 


Forest 
form 
factor. 


Basis.2 


mmha. 
1,294 
1,076 
•887 
756 
668 
603 
558 
527 
506 
490 
478 
467 
457 
447 
437 
427 
417 


Sq.ft. 
102 
140 
169 
190 
205 
216 
225 
232 
238 
242 
247 
250 
253 
256 
259 
202 
264 


Imhes. 
3.8 
4.9 
.5.9 
6.8 
7.5 
8.1 
8.6 
9.0 
9.3 
9.5 
9.7 
9.9 
10.1 
10.2 
10.4 
10.6 
10.8 


Feet. 
24 
31 

42 
46 
51 
55 
58 
61 
64 
66 
68 
70 
72 
73 
74 
76 


Bd.jt.^ 


Cu.fU 


Cords.-' 




Plots. 










1 




















15,200 
19, 700 
23, 300 
26,200 
28, ,500 
30,500 
32,100 
33,500 
34,800 
35, 9(X) 
37, 000 
3S, 1(10 
39, 100 


3,600 
4,500 
5,140 
5,000 
5,950 
6,240 
6,490 
6,700 
6,890 
7,050 
7,180 
7,300 
7,390 


31 
40 

48 
55 
60 
64 
68 
70 
72 
74 
76 
77 
78 


.38 
.42 
.42 
.42 
.41 
.40 
.40 

'.39 
.39 
.38 
.38 
.37 




2 

4 
5 

1 















15 



20 
25 
30 
35 
40 
45 
50 
55 
60 
65 
70 
75 
80 
85 
90 
95 
100 


1,6C3 
1, 310 
1,062 
890 
774 
697 
643 
605 
575 
551 
532 
516 
503 
402 
482 
472 
463 


84 
115 
139 
157 
171 
181 
189 
196 
201 
206 
210 
213 
216 
220 
223 
226 
228 


3.1 

4.0 
4.9 
5.7 
6.3 
6.9 
7.4 
7.7 

.8.0 
8.2 
8.5 
8.7 
8.9 
9.0 
9.2 
9.4 
9.5 


19 
25 
31 

36 
40 
44 
47 
50 
*} 
55 
57 

61 
63 
64 
65 
66 

































1 


10, 700 
14, 100 
17,100 
19, 000 
21, 700 
23, 500 
2.5,000 
20, 200 
27,300 
2S,.300 
29,300 
30, 200 
31, 100 


3,000 
3,770 
4,320 
4,720 
5,050 
5,310 
.5, .550 
5. 7.50 
5,910 
6,0.50 
6,170 
6,280 
6,370 


23 
31 

38 
44 
48 
52 
54 
57 
59 
61 
62 
63 
64 


.44 
.47 
.48 
.48 
.47 
.47 
.46 
.46 
.45 
.44 
.43 
.43 
.42 




2 
5 


9 
8 
3 












28 



20 
25 
30 
35 
40 
45 
50 
55 
00 
65 
70 
75 
80 
85 
90 
95 
100 


2,134 
1, 620 
1,-304 
1,074 
924 
827 
755 
703 
004 
634 
609 
588 
509 
551 
533 
510 
499 


67 
90 
109 
124 
130 
145 
153 
159 
164 
108 
172 
176 
ISO 
1,S3 
186 
189 
192 


2.4 
3.2 
3.9 
4.0 
5.2 
5.7 
0.1 
0.4 
0.7 
7.0 
7.2 
7.4 
7.6 
7.8 
8.0 
8.2 
8.4 


14 
20 
25 
30 
34 
37 
40 
42 
45 
47 
49 
50 
52 
53 
55 
56 




I 

































6,200 
8,000 
10,900 
13,000 
14,900 
10, ,500 
17,800 
18,900 
19, 800 
20, €00 
21,300 
21,900 
22,500 


2,330 
3,000 
3,500 
3,860 
4.150 
4,390 
4,-590 
4,7G0 
4,920 
5,050 
5,170 
5,200 
5,340 


15 
22 
28 
32 
36 

41 
43 

45 
47 
48 
49 
50 


.51 
.56 
.57 
.57 
.57 
.56 
.55 
.54 
.53 
.52 
.51 
.50 
.49 


1 




2 1 


4 
2 
5 
1 
1 


1 


1 1 




10 ' 



tab^'tlljas"™ ^"^^'^^^^'^'^ ^°^ '^^"*^ ^'^^^^ ignored. Sec Table 53 for actual figures on which thi.s .\i:'l.i 

^^Trees 4 inches and over in diameter breast high; top diameter outside bark,4 inches, stump licight, 1 
fo^t''^^ ^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^''^"^ ^" diameter breast high; top diameter outside bark, 5 inches, stump heiglit, 1 



44 



BULLETIN 544, V. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE, 



Table IS.— Nonvay spruce ' {Picea excelsa). Nonnal tjield table for northern and central 

Germani/. 







QUALITY 


I. 






Age. 


Number 
of trees 
per acre. 

1,254 
799 
557 
421 
340 
284 
247 


Basal 
area.- 


Average 
height. 


Diameter 

of 

average 

tree.2 


Yield 
per 
acre.3 


Forest 
form 
factor. 


^0 
50 
60 
70 
80 
90 
100 


Sq.ft. 
194.8 
210. 1 
231.. 5 
241.8 
2.50.7 
259.2 
266.7 


Feet. 
47.9 
61.4 
72.4 
81.3 
88.6 
94.8 

100.0 


Inches. 
5.4 
7.2 
8.9 
10.4 
11.8 
13.2 
14.4 


Cu. ft. 
4,973 
7,067 
8,798 
10,227 
11,425 
12,457 
13,367 


0.531 
. r,:i3 
..525 
. 520 
. 514 
.507 
. 501 







QUALITY 


II. 






40 


1,924 


140.8 


30.2 


3.7 


2,115 


0. 495 


50 


1,216 


162. 4 


42.0 


4.9 








840 


178.9 


52.2 


6.2 


i>''>59 






628 


189. 2 


61.0 


7.4 


^i'^ii 






500 


200.0 


67.9 


8.5 


7,317 




90 
100 


424 


209.5 


73.5 


9.5 


8,217 




380 


217.7 


78.4 


10.2 


8,960 





QUALITY III. 



95 5 


17.6 


2.3 


638 


0.380 


116.3 


25. 3 


3.3 


1,410 


.479 


J31.3 


33.3 


4.5 


2,403 


. 550 


142.5 


41.1 


.5.4 


3,344 




152. 2 


47.2 


6.2 


4, 161 






51.8 


6. 8 


4,823 


. 580 


167.3 


55. 4 


7.3 


5,352 


.577 



3 instead of 5 quality classes. 
2 At 1.3 meters (4.27 feet) from the ground . , ^, , , ^ 
s Derbholz (top diameter of 2.76 inches outside the bark). 

A comparison ' of the values in Table 17 for red spruce with those 
of Table 18 for Norway spruce l)rings out the importance of good 
management in the development of stands. One of the first things 
to arrest the attention is the marked discrepancy between red spruce 
and Norway spruce in height and volume growth in QuaUty I. 
Even red spruce's advantage in having only its best growing trees 
included is insufficient to overbalance the deficiency in height. One's 
first impulse is to take this as confirming the widely accepted opinion 
that the growth qualities of red spruce are markedly inferior to those 
of Nonvay. Yet if that were so, the discrepancy would prevail 
thi-oughout the tliree quahty classes, wliich it does not do. It is 
considerably less marked in Quahty II and disappears almost alto- 
gether in Quality III. To explain this difference, one must take 
into consideration the mtensity of management of Norway spruce in 
the different quahty classes. Thus, in Quahty III, where Norway 
spruce was least intensively managed, thinmngs began late, between 

".In making the coi^ison it should be contmually borne in mind (1) that the red spruce table is based 
on the measurement only of dominant and intermediate trees in 59 volunteer stands, whereas the^ other 
includes all ■neon trees in 400 managed stands, four-fiflhs of which were artificially regenerated, and (2) that 
the utilization is not so close for red spruce as for Norway either in the top or at the stump. 



THE RED SPRUCE. 45 

tlio fortieth and forty-filth year, and were light, ahont 2 trees in 7, or 

liardly more than the natural thinning which took place among the 

dominant and intermediate trees in the coiTesponding red spruce 

stands. The thinnings througliout, up to and including the one 

hundredth year, were in fact insufficient to make the num])cr of trees 

the same in the Norway spruce stands as in the red spinice (dominant 

and intermediate trees) stands of corresponding age. Nevertheless, 

thinnings did accelerate tlie rate of growth somewhat, so that hy tlie 

one hundredth year the whole Norway spruce stand, consisting of 

98 more trees, very closely approximated the development attained 

by the red spruce dominant and intermediate trees. In the Quality 

II stands the effect of thinnings is more marked. Thinnings began 

in the thirty-fifth year, with an intensity of 3 trees in 7 removed 

(42 per cent), and continued comparatively heavy till the eightieth 

year, when they were 1 in 5 (20 per cent). The acceleration in 

this case is eveiyw-here apparent. Shorter by 10 feet in the for- 

; tieth year, the whole Norway spruce stand had by the sixtieth year 

attained the same development as the dominant and intermediate 

red spruce stand of that age, and, while still lacking nearly 2 inches 

in average diameter, showed 9 cubic feet greater volume. By tlie 

! eightieth year the total stems in the Norway spruce stand had 

: been reduced to 3 less than the number of dominant and intermediate 

] trees in the red spruce stand; had practically the same average 

I diameter and 7 feet greater height; and being fuller boled, as indi- 

I cated by the larger form factor, showed a very much accelerated vol- 

j ume growth. In Quality I, tiiimiings began m the twenty-fifth year 

I on a scale slightly more than 3 in 7 ; and the entire stand with 586 

i more trees, had by the fortieth year surpassed in average height the 

, average dominant and intermediate development of the red spruce 

; stand of corresponding age and quality. This, w4th the fuller bole 

I development, gave the Norway stand a considerable advantage in 

volume development, whether or not it accounts for all of the 1,313 

I cubic feet excess volume at that age. From that time on the red 

j spruce stagnated and languished; but the Norway spruce, under the 

stimulas of frequent thinnings, increased steadily in every respect. 

! The conclusion to be di-awn from the comparison seems to be that 

' lack of management rather than any inherent deficiency in growing 

qualities was the factor most largely responsible for the less ravorable 

showing of red spruce. 

METHODS OF CUTTING. 

The methods of cuttmg to secure the natural regeneration of spruce 
depend in a large measure upon whether the stand to be perpetuated 
is of the selection, or many-aged form, as represented by the virgin 
and the cull forests, or of the even-aged form, such as those coming 
in after fii-e or windfall, or on abandoned pastures. 



\ 



46 BUIXETIN 544. U. S. DEPARTMEISTT OF AGEICULTURE. 

SELECTION CUTTINGS. 

On account of the tolerance of spruce, it is well adapted to a selec- 
tion system of management by whicli only the older trees of the 
main stand are removed and the necessary conditions thus estab- 
lished for the development of a new young growth, Wlien this sys- 
tem is strictly carried out, the forest should be cut over annually, and 
only the very oldest and largest trees and those of least promising 
growth removed. In forests constituted as ours are at present, such 
a procedure would be impossible of accomplishment under any other 
than State ownership, which might put other considerations above 
revenue. 

Cutting to a diameter limit, now quite generally practiced by lum- 
bermen in the spruce regions, is a modification of the selection system 
by which a sufficient yield to make the individual cutting operations 
profitable is secured periodically. The amount cut each period and 
the interval between the successive cuttings vary, of course, with 
the diameter limit used. 

In order to obtain satisfactory results under this system, a careful 
scrutiny is required of those trees immediately above and below the 
set diameter limit that their relations to others and to the best inter- 
ests of the stand to be left may be ascertained. A fixed diameter 
limit is used in making computations to forecast the yield; but its 
apphcation by ''rule of thumb" in actual practice may defeat the 
purpose of the system. In the woods the diameter limit is best used 
simply as a guide. In general the largest trees should be cut, since 
their rate of growth is below that which would make their retention 
a profitable investment. They are likewise occupying space which 
would be more profitably used by younger and more rapidly growing 
trees. Approaching the diameter limit there are trees both above 
and below the established limit which should be cut because they 
have a poor crown, are stunted, or otherwsie defective, so that their 
present worth would be lost if they were to be left until the next 
cutting. On the other hand, trees above the prescribed diameter 
limit which give every indication of being in thrifty growing condition 
should unquestionably be left, since their worth wiU be materially 
enhanced by allowing them to remain until the next cut is made. 
Trees of inferior species, as balsam and most of the hardwoods, which 
are interfering with the best development of the spruce, should be 
cut whenever possible. 

Thus while the prescribed diameter limit may be 14 inches, the 
approximate minimum size to be taken may be 5 inches. Other 
things being equal, this minimum size will depend upon the market 
and the object of management. To insure a utilization of at least 
two-thirds of the stem height, no sound spruce tree should be cut for 
lumber smaller than 10 inches in diameter at breastheight and for 
pulp none smaller than 5 inches in diameter. These minima should 



THE RED SPRUCE. 47 

be raised to 1 1 inches and 6 inches, respectively, for stands averaging 
from 65 to 85 feet tall and to 12 inches and 6 inches for all stands 
over 85 feet taW. 

It is not feasible to remove the defective trees which will not yield 
sufficient material to offset at least the cost of logging, except in 
localities where there is a high fire hazard or as a precaution against 
the spread of insects or fungous disease. In tliis case the loggim^ 
operation may well be taken advantage of to improve fire protection 
or sanitary conditions by felling and swamping badly defective and 
dead trees and snags. 

Care must be taken to provide suitable conditions for reproducing 
the stand. Where there is balsam in mixture with spruce, the com- 
petition of this species in the young growth should be reduced as far 
as possible by cutting the balsam in the main stand to as low a 
diameter hmit as market conditions will warrant, thus reducing the 
number of balsam left for seed dispersal. Where the species in mix- 
ture are hardwoods, the same procedure wiU apply, although tlie 
elimination of the hardwoods need not be carried out so severely, 
for the reason that their effective range of seed dispersal is not so 
great as that of balsam. A more severe cutting of the hardwoods 
may be necessary, however, where there is much advanced young 
growth of spruce which requires to be released from shade to encoui^ 
age its more rapid development. 

Spruce should be favored in preference to balsam and most hard- 
woods for the reason that it is much less aggressive than the others 
and usually of the more value and desirability. Where conditions 
are favorable to the development of white pine and ash and possibly 
also basswood and red oak, they should be given the preference over 
spruce, since they are more valuable and less able to maintain them- 
selves in competition with spruce, being less tolerant of shade. 

It is impracticable to trust to the loggers to put the diameter hmit 
into effect, and it is here that many spruce operators fail to secure 
the full benefit of the system's apphcation. The trees to be cut should 
be marked beforehand by a man competent to judge the needs and 
requirements of the stand from the standpoint "of both the forester 
and the operator. The fact that some companies which have tried 
marking claim that the results attained under the one method and 
the other do not materially differ does not prove the impracticabihty 
of the method, but reflects rather on the lack of trained judgment of 
the men whom they have employed to do the marking. 

GROUPWISE CUTTINGS. 

For general use the selection system in one of its forms is undoubt- 
edly best suited to the management of spruce, particularly in lumber 
operations. Nevertheless it has its hmitations. The degree of sever- 
ity with which a stand must be cut to make the operation profitable 



48 BULLETIN 544, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

is important particularly in the swamp type and on the more exposed 
slope situations where there is gre at danger from windfall. In such 
situations the cuttings should be very light, so that the main crown 
cover will continue relatively undisturbed, or everything merchant- 
able on a given area should be cut. This will virtually amount to 
clean cutting, for the nonmerchantable material left will almost inev- 
itably be blown down. 

If the individual cutting area is small, of onl}^ one or two acres 
in extent, and flanked by spruce growth either on its windward side 
or above it, reseeding from trees standmg on the adjacent area ^^^ll 
take place foUowmg clean cutting. Thus on a level, low-lying area 
groups or patches of timber may be selected for removal and the sur- 
romiding imcut areas depended upon to funiish the necessary seed 
for reproduction. Li such a case subsequent cuttings would extend 
these areas gradually mitil the whole was cut over. 

The exact shape and size of the area to be clean cut, as well as the 
selection of the initial points of attack in starting a groupwise cut- 
ting, depend on circumstances and the object it is desired to attuhi. 
Areas of advanced young growth may occm' under the old woods, 
which it is desirable to free from shading and allow to develop; advan- 
tage may be taken of groups of overmature or insect-infested trees 
which are stagnating or declining in growth and value and w^lvich 
require cutting to prevent loss; or it might be desired to replace 
groups of mixed spruce and hardwoods by pm'e spruce, or to make an 
opening to encourage pine, ash, or other more valuable species. 

The chief objection to this method m practice is that to insure 
eifective reproduction the cleared areas should not exceed from, 100 
to 150 feet across. These should be separated by a sufficient amount 
of micut timber to protect the cleared area from too severe exposure 
to smi and wind and insure the remaining stand against being bloAvn 
down. For economical lumbering, however, a larger area Avould 
often bo desirable. 

CLEAN CUTTING IN STRIPS. 

A better method for ext<>nsive cuttings in areas susceptible to 
windthrow is to distribute the clean cutting in strips in such a man- 
ner that the long way of the strip is at right angles, or nearly so, to 
the direction of the prevailing storm winds. Reproduction of the 
cleared areas would be secured by seeds disseminated from the trees 
in the intervening mi cut timber belts which should be left mta( t at 
the time of the first cutting, or only very lightly thinned by removing 
small, or overtopped and djmig trees without disturbing the main 
crown cover. Whether it is advisable to thin or not depends upon 
the degree of hability to windthrow, and upon the depth of the strips 
in the direction of the prevailing high winds. Instead of the sides 
of the strips in the cutting area being straight, they may be undu- 



\ 



544, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture. 




FiQ. 1.— Seed Trees Near at Hand. Stocking Dense in Consequence. 





^^'^^ ^^, 


*'3f 


M^'*"- 








Hi 










jt _ HTafi 




H 






N 




El 




'■•"%**t».*««*i^^'; 


•^Siftfi* 


^ 





Fig. 2.-SEED Trees at a Distance. Stocking in Groups and as Widely Scattered 
Individuals. 



GENESIS OF OLD FIELD SPRUCE STANDS. 



j|. 544, U. S. Dept. of A?ricu!ture 



Plate V, 





THE RED SPRUCE. 49 

lating or saw-toothed, like a series of wedges or triangles -^qtli their 
bases on hne. This modification is rather commonly used with 
spruce abroad. 

Effectiveness in securing reproduction with the strip plan will 
depend upon the width of the strips employed. Satisfactory restock- 
ing of the cleared area can not be expected on a strip wider than twice 
the height of the trees in the adjacent stand; not because of inabil- 
ity to secm^e effective seed dispersal at even a great distance, ])ut 
because of the effect upon seed germination and growth. Too exten- 
sive cutting will expose the soil to drying influences detrimental to 
spruce reproduction and at the same time create a condition favor- 
able to the development of hardwoods, raspberry, and other porfMi- 
nials and weed growth in general. 

Satisfactory reproduction in the reserve strips must be secured as 
, advanced growth from seed trees standing on those strips, or the 
; cutting of the reserve strips must be delayed until the trees on Hie 
^ strips first cleared are large enough to supply the necessary seed. A 
^ spruce stand in which windfirmness has been especially developed by 
g periodic thmning from early youth may be reproduced by the sheher- 
^ wood compartment method. Such stands, however, can hardly be 
p said to exist in this country at the present time. Thinnings of tlie 
5, severity of shelter-wood cuttings are largely out of the question in the 
;] previously unthinned stands of either virgin or old-field spruce which 
I it is desirable to manage under a system of clean cutting in strips. 
J ^ To insure an early second cut and prompt and effective regenera- 
j tion, alternate cut and imcut strips not over 75 feet in width'should 
I be employed. By the adoption of strips of this width reproduction 
?j would not only be reasonably assured to the cleared strips but tlio 
(Side light and extra ventilation which would be let into the uncleared 
strips would be sufficient to create a condition favorable to satisfac- 
torj reproduction there also. For the dense, even-aged, old-field 
stands, strips as narrow as 10 feet with 20-foot reserve strips inter- 
vening have been recommended.^ The final clearing of the area under 
such a system should be possible within 10 or 15 years after the fii-st 
cut. Tnis will enable the harvesting of a third or more of the crop at 
jone cut. The cost will of course be somewhat more than if wider 
strips or clean cutting in a soHd block were practiced. The yield and 
operating cost per unit of area should not, however, be materially 
different from that which would result from cutting to a diameter 
Bmit of 14 inches, except that slightly greater expense would attacli 
Ito the handling and marketing of the smaller material which the clean 
j3uttings would yield. 

1 " Forestry in New England," by R. C. Hawley and A. F. Hawes p 220 
84949°— Bull. 544-17 4 



50 



BULLETIN 544, U. S. DEPAETMENT OF AGEICULTUEE. 



Tile use of strips up to 300 feet wide or more will reduce the cost of 
logging but yAW delay the cutting of the second half of the area until 
the trees on the first half become large enough to furnish the neces- 
sary seed for reproducing it when 
cut over. This will delay the sec- 
ond cut to between the sixtieth 
and seventy-fifth year and require 
a rotation for each half of the stand 
of from 120 to 150 years. Com- 
plete stockmg on the entire 300 
feet of clearmg could hardly be 
expected short of 3 and possibly 4 
seed years; that is, from 15 to 18 
years. Birch, aspen, beech, maple, 
and other hardwoods, and rasp- 
berries and other perennials will 
almost surely come in dmnng the in- 
terval, whether the area is burned 
over or not. Spruce, however, will 
seed in beneath; and while that 
which comes in first where the 
cover crop is dense will be retarded, 
that which comes in later will fuid 
(conditions favorable to its rapid de- 
velopment, so that when the over- 
wood thins out, tliis understory of 
spruce will develop largely as an 
even-aged stand. (See Fig. 2a.) 
The most desirable of the hard- 
woods as a nurse tree for spruce is 
the aspen. It also reaches such a 
size as to enable it to be cut at a 
profit within from 40 to 50 years. 
Its coming in, therefore, should be 
encouraged. This can best be ac- 
complished by the broadca st burn- 
ing of the brush in the earl}^ spring 
following the logging. The seed 
of fire cherry is dispersed in the 
summer and of beech, paper birch, 
and sugar maple in the fall and 
winter, while that of the aspen is 
dispersed in the early sprmg. Broadcast burning m the sprmg, there- 
fore, as soon as the brush is dried out enough to burn readily, wLU 
destroy the duff and the seeds and spring germinates of the othe 




THE RED SPRUCE. 



51 



species and will expose mineral soil most opportunely for aspen 
seed to catch and take possession of tlie ground, followed by 
spruce in subsequent seed yeare. 
This method sliould prove satisfac- 
tory, particularly where spruce saw 
timber is desired. The early growth 
of the main stand mider the cover 
crop would prevent the development 
of stout branches to such a height at 
least that one or more clear logs to 
each bole could be produced. The 
cover crop would reach merchantable 
size by about the fortieth or fiftieth 
year and could be harvested, (See 
Fig. 2b.) The main crop could be 
thinned at the same time to secure 
satisfactory distribution of the trees 
to be left. With the removal of the 
cover crop all spruce would be stimu- 
lated and rapid development follow. 
At the time of clean cutting tlie 
second area, in from the sixtieth to 
seventieth year, it would be profit- 
able to thin the stand again on the 
first area. (Fig. 2c.) The final thin- 
ning of the first area would take 
place between the one hmidredth 
and one himdred and twentieth year 
when the removal of the cover crop 
and first thinning of the second area 
was made, thus at least three tliin- 
nmgs of the spruce would be pos- 
sible with little or no additional 
expense. The cost of bringing the 
cut of spruce to maturity would be 
somewhat more mider this length- 
ened rotation than under a shorter 
rotation, but this would be offset 
to a considerable extent by the in- 
termediate revenues from the har- 
vestmg of the cover crop and the 
thinnings and by the better quality 
of timber yielded. The method 
could obviously only be employed 
where there was an available market for the products yielded by 
the cover crop, namely, aspen pulj) and excelsior stock, and maple 




52 



BULLETIN 'Ai, V. S. DEPAETMENT OF AGEICULTUKE. 



and birch firewood, spools, novelties, and the hke. A permanent 
market for spruce of the quality produced would also be necessary. 

IMPROVEMENT CUTTINGS. 

With forests of the selection or many- 
aged form, thinnings, strictly speaking, 
merge to such an extent with the opera- 
tions of harvesting the mature crops as 
to lose their identity. Thinnings and 
like operations, therefore, are applied 
to such forests only as are even-aged 
throughout or are made up of even- 
aged groups. 

Improvement cuttings are divided 
successively into the following classes: 
cleanings, liberation cuttings, and thin- 
nings. Pruning is also an improvement 
operation, but in this country, and par- 
ticularly in the case of spruce, will be 
scantily employed. Prmiing involves a 
direct investment of money from which 
only an indirect benefit is derived. With 
a short rotation, prmiing makes possible 
the securing of a larger percentage of 
clear logs capable of yielding upper 
grades of lumber. Aside from so-called 
' ' fiddle butts ' ' for piano board and violin 
stock and clear logs for siding material, 
thedifi'erence in price at the present time 
between the various grades of spruce will 
not justify an investment for prmiing. 
Cleanings. — Cleanings are particu- 
larly adapted to bring about favorable 
results in the mixed spmce and hard- 
wood growths which come in after clean 
cutting and burning. Such worthless 
material as fire cherry and the slow- 
growuig beech and sugar maple may be 
removed from yomig stands, and the 
birch and popple thinned. The most 
advantageous time is about the fifth 
year after the spruce has come m under 
the hardwood cover, since at that age 
spruce has f uUy established its roots in the mineral soil and is ready to 
grow rapidly in height. Cleanings may also be resorted to in old-field 




7 ^ 



THE RED SPRUCE. 53 

spruce stands to eliminate spruce or balsam advance growth and to 
reduce the percentage of balsam in the stand. Cuttings of this sort 
are indirectly remunerative, in the sense that they operate to shorten 
the rotation and thus bring the final yield nearer at hand; but care 
must be taken to remove only what is necessary to accomplish the 
purpose of the operation, otherwise the cost will be too groat. 

Liberation cuttings. — In the mixed selection stands, it often hap- 
pens that a large spreading maple or other hardwood is retarding 
the development of a group of young spruce. The removal- of 
such a tree for that reason would be a liberation cutting. It 
will generally happen, though, that immediate financial considera- 
tions as to whether or not the tree is worth cutting will govern, 
and that such a cutting will be made a part of the regular logging 
operation. Similarly the removal of this class of tree from second 
growth stands will form, a part of the operation of thinning. Because 
such trees are larger than the others in the stand, their removal 
may constitute a determining factor in making a thinning profitable. 
A liberation cutting wiU not often be made alone, although in cer- 
tain instances it will justify itself bv making possible a large final 
yield. 

Thinnings. — Thinnings are pai'ticularly desirable in the dense, 
even-aged stands resulting from natural seeding. Such stands not 
infrequently have upwards of 4,000 trees per acre, with an average 
growing space of about 10 scpare feet per tree at 30 years of ago. 
As compared to this, a planted stand spaced 6 by 6 feet apart would 
have but 1,210 trees per acre, with a growing space per tree of 36 
square feet. Even where the aggregate number of trees in the natural 
stand is less than that indicated, the tendency of spruce to germi- 
nate in clumps about the more favorable seed bed spots gives rise to 
a crowding which is every bit as undesirable as tliough the area were 
uniformly congested. 

On accomit of the extreme tonacily with wliidi spru( e hangs on 
when once it has its roots estabhshed in the soil, it is not able to free 
itself in the stmggle for supremacy with anything hko the facility 
of the less tolerant species. As a result, a long period of stag-nation, 
in which both the height and diameter growth suffer, foUows the 
closing of the crown cover. These stands, if allowed to continue in 
their overcrowded condition mitil they are from. 50 to 60 years of 
age, will often contain as many dominant and intermediate trees 
to the acre as the planted stand would have to start with, and wiU 
be composed of small-topped, spindling trees, averaging not more 
than 6 or 7 inches in diameter; and not more than one-haK of the 
total volume will be merchantable. Under such conditions, also, the 
stand can not be thinned profitably. Tlie cost of getting out the 
amount of product to be secured from a first thinning in such a stand 



54 BULLETIN 544, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

would be prohibitive. Tlie remaining trees would be particularly 
liable to windthrow, and the tliinning would produce doubtful results 
in securing an accelerated growth. With the attainment of their 
principal height growth, the trees composing a crowded stand have 
adjusted themselves through the abnormal reduction of their crowii 
surface to the restricted growing space, and the possibilities of stimu- 
lating the growth in such a stand are not promising, miless the stand 
is to be left intact for upwards of 30 years afterward. 

The principle to be followed in making thinnings depends upon the 
object of management and the age when thinnings can be begun. If 
it be desired to secure the maximum volume production, which cul- 
minates, according to Table 14, between the thirty-fifth and seventieth 
year, depending on the miit of volume and the site quahty, thinnings 
should be undertaken by the twenty-fifth or thirtieth year on the 
best sites and be confined to the dominant and intermediate trees. 
If, however, quaUty production is the object desired, the first thin- 
] lings may be delayed until the thirty-fifth or fortieth year, being 
confuied to the lower and intermediate crown classes mitil the 
sixtieth or seventieth year. Tliis would especially encourage the 
development of form and quality. Thereafter the stand would be 
thinned more heavily. The last third of the rotation, or approxi- 
mately after the eightieth or the one hmidredth year, the cuttings 
would be in the form of accretion cuttings which would isolate a 
certain number of the best trees for the encouragement of a more 
rapid growth in volume. 

The object of thinnings for volume production should be to free 
the tallest trees and gradually reduce their numbers without removing 
the weakest, except where they ha>Ye a dry top, since they assist 
natural prmiing, cover and protect the soil, and add to the strength 
of a close canopy. In the early period, when the trees are only to a 
limited extent merchantable, the fewest number of trees possible 
should be removed. Tlie greatest advantage, accordingly, can be 
derived by cutting only those trees which occupy a position in the 
upper crown level, but which are interfering with the development of 
the stronger growing individuals. This will relieve the intense strug- 
gle taking place among those trees which are finally to form the 
mature stand and will allow them to develop with a minimum of 
hindrance from their neighbors. To be most effective, thinnings 
should be frequent and fight in early life and heavier and less fre- 
quent in later years. Such early thinnings, however, involve a con- 
siderable expense, while the later ones may render the stand liable 
to windthrow, so that it will often be necessary to compromise. 

In judging of the need for thinning, the relation of the crown length 
to the total height of those trees which are to form the final cut should 



THE RED SPRUCE. 



55 



he noted. This would ordinarily vary between 25 and 40 per cent, 
depending on whether maximum solid volume or board-foot volume 
was the desired o})ject. However, the response to thinnings made 
in spruce having an average cro^vn length of less than 25 per cent of 
the height will be exceedingly slow and for that reason of doubtful 
hnancial value. 

In Table 19 an attempt is made to predict the jncld due to accel- 
erated growth to be obtained by thinnmgs made at different ages and 
\\ith varying degrees of severity. 

Table 19 . — Yield from stands of average quality thinned for maximum volume prodtiction 
of pulpivood Umpeeled cords) based on the mtting of dominant {including codoininant) 
and intermediate trees only. Minimum merchantable size, 6 inches in diameter at 
breastheight and 5 inches in diameter outside bark in the top. 

4 THINNINGS. 



Age of 
stand. 


Number of dominant and in- 
termediate trees. 


Propor- 
tion of 
trees re- 
moved. 


Mer- 
chantable 
volume 
of trees 
removed. 


Final 
yield. 


Total 
yield. 


Equiva- 
lent mean 
annual 
growth. 


In fully 
stocked 

un- 
thinned 
stands. 


To be 
left after 
thinning. 


To be re- 
moved in 
thinning. 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


, 


9 


Years. 

25 

30 

35 

1 40 

45 


1,316 

1,062 

890 

774 

605 


1,097 
014 
762 
635 


220 
183 
152 
127 


1 
1 


Cords. 


Cords. 


Cords. 


Cords. 


4.9 
5.6 

7.4 




















44 






682 


17.9 


61.9 1 1.37 















3 THINNINGS. 



25 
35 
,5 

50 


1,316 
890 
697 

605 


1,0.54 
791 
593 


263 
263 
198 












7.1 
9.5 














" 


60.6 


1.21 


724 


16.6 











2 THINNINGS. 



30 
40 

50 


1,062 

774 

605 


849 
637 


212 
212 

424 


1 










10.2 








44 


54.2 


1.10 


10.2 











The basic values are taken from Table 17, giving the yields for 
unthinned, fully stocked, old-field spruce stands of second quality. 
The volume production of these stands reaches a maximum in the 
fifty-fifth year and is 44 cords per acre. The assumption is made in 
Table 19 that 4 thinnings will reduce the natural rotation 10 years; 



56 BULLETIN ;544, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGEICULTUEE. 

while for 3 and 2 thinnings 5 years will be saved in bringing the stand 
to maturity. The severity of each thinning is gauged so as to leave 
approximately the same number of trees as are shown by the yield 
table to be capable of growing under naturally competitive condi- 
tions at the end of the thinning period. Thus, in the case of the 
series of 4 thinnings, the first one in the twenty-fifth year reduces 
the number of trees from 1.316 to .1,097, which not quite approxi- 
mates the condition which would be brought about by natural 
selection in the succeeding 5 years. The normal number of trees 
in untliinned stands (column 2) does not enter into the calculation 
but is included only for comparison to show how far each thinning 
will eliminate competition during the period. 

All first thinnings, according to the table, show no remunerative 
yield. They are accordingly made light to reduce as far as possible 
the expense involved in making them. The m^aintaining of a reason- 
able density is also a consideration in making the thinning light, 
thus improving the form and quality of the final yield. Witli four 
thinnings the num.ber of trees is not sufficiently reduced in any one 
thmning so that a normal density will not be restored within 5 years. 
With the 3 thinnings the number of trees is reduced in each case 
somewhat below the normal for a fully stocked stand of 5 years 
greater age. For example, the first thiiming at 25 years reduces the 
number of trees to 1,054, while the normal density for 30-year stands 
is 1,062. With 2 thinnings the cut is heavier still. In each case, 
however, there is little doubt that tlic cro^\^l cover will be reestablishd 
in 5 years. 

In calculating the volume of each thinning the volume of the aver- 
age tree in the yield table has been taken as a basis. The assump- 
tion introduces a plus error, since doubtless the average of the trees 
taken out will not in all cases be the same as the average of the 
stand. Yet any error which may arise from this cause will bo more 
than ofi^set by the fact that in addition to the indicated number of 
dominant and intermediate trees taken an imestimated amount will 
be yielded by suppressed and dead trees taken at the same time. The 
final yield also is based exclusively on that to be obtained from dom-, 
inant and intermediate trees, while the suppressed and dead v/ill 
doubtless yield several cords additional at the final cutting. 

In the absence of graded miU tallies for second-growth spruce it 
is not possible to determine the rotation yielding the highest quality 
increment. Table 20, however, attempts to show the intermediate 
and final yield in board feet for spruce which has started under a 
light hardwood cover and been managed under the wide strip system 
outlined elsewhere. 



THE RED SPRUCE. 



Table 20. — Yield from stands thinned for production of superior quality lumber, based 
on the cutting of dominant (including codominant) and intermediate trees onhj. Mini- 
mum merchantable size, 7 inches in diameter at brcastheight and 6 inches in diameter 
outside bark in the top. 





Number of dominant and interme- 
diate trees only. 


Propor- 


Merchant- 
able volume 
of trees 
removed. 


Final 
yield. 


Total 
yield. 




Ape of 
stand. 


In fully 

stocked 

unthinned 

stands. 


To be left 

alter 
thinning. 


To be 
removed in 
thinning. 


tion of 

trees 

removed. 


mean 
annual 
growth. 


1 


2 


3 


4 


•^ 


6 


7 


s 


9 


Years. 
45 


1,31(5 
890 
097 
60,-, 
551 
516 
492 
■»72 


1,053 


263 


}. 


Bd.f. 


Bd.ff. 


Bd.ff. 


Bd./l. 








1 


6') 


514 


129 1 \ 


3,X70 




7n 


] 


8,5 








1 


95 












105. 


347 1 no 1 I 


7,775 






115 








463 






25,6:',0 


' 37, 275 




120 









11,645 


olO 



It lias been assumed in this case that at the time of removal of 
the hardwood cover, in the forty-fifth year, the understory of spruce 
would have a development parallel to that of a 25-year-old stand 
which had started in the open. Thus by adding 20 years to the dif- 
ferent ages given in Table 17 the equivalent yields in unthinned 
stands up to 120 years are obtained. 

The first thinning is indicated to be light and unremunerative, but 
there would doubtless be yielded at least a small amount of cord- 
v/ood, which would be the class of material chiefly yielded by the cover 
crop of aspen, birch, and other hardwoods taken out at this cutting. 
The cut, as a whole, should therefore show a fair profit. This thin- 
ning would reduce the number of dominant and intermediate trees 
in the stand to a spacing of about 7 by 6 feet or that found in a nor- 
mal unthinned stand seven years older, although the cover would 
doubtless entirely close in five years or less. The relief from compe- 
tition should, however, occasion such an acceleration in growth for 
the 20-year period before the next thinning as to gain 5 years over 
the unthinned stand. Thus the stand at the next thinning, in the 
sixty-fifth year, would have the development shown for 70-5^ear-old 
unthinned stands, or 643 dominant and intermediate trees to the acre. 

From the sixty-fifth year on to the one hundred and fiftli year, 
when the third thinning would take place, the reduction in num])ers 
in natural unthinned stands is very gradual, 54 betv»^een the seven- 
tieth and seventy-fifth years, and but 11 between the one hundredth 
and one hundred and fifth years. The removal of one tree in 
five from the dominant and intermediate crown classes at the sixty- 
fiftli year would consequently reduce the number of stems to that 



58 BULLETT^^ 544, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

found, in a fulh^ stocked imtliinned stand of 95 years. The means 
this thinning would afford for the enlargement of the crowns of the 
remaining trees should make it possible to sustain such a rate of 
growth for the 40-year period as v/ould bring the thinned stand at 
105 years to a state of development equal to the unthinned 120- 
year-old stand. This would require a periodic mean annual growth 
of l)ut 350 board feet, which should be easily possible, since in the 
unlliinned stands it is 500 board feet per annum for tlio period from 
the seventieth to the seventy-fifth years and 360 board feet per 
amium from the eightieth to the eighty-iifth, Vv'ith a mean for the 
40-year period of 280 board feet per annum. 

The fmal thinning in the one hundred and fifth year woidd be 
increased in severity so as to take out 1 tree in every 4 in the dominant 
and intermediate crown classes, thus reducing the number of trees 
remaining in these classes to 347 and the volume to 23,300 board feet 
in round numbers. 

The calculation of the final yield is based on the assumption that 
the volume will increase at the same rate per cent in the final 15 3'ears 
in the thinned stand as in the unthinned stand. This gives an average 
volume for the 347 trees of 74 board feet per tree, corresponding to a 
tree 9.5 inches in diameter at breast height and 65 feettall, which is 
well within the limits of reason. 

These calculations, like those on cord yields, leave out of consid- 
eration entirely all intermediate or final yields to be obtained in 
cutting suppressed and dead trees, which in the aggregate would be 
considerable, thus making the predictions amply conservative. 

Doubtless on the rotations after the first one, except in exposed 
situations, the final removal of the crop might be begun in the ninety- 
fifth or one hundredth year under the shelter-wood compartment 
method. This would render the two cutting areas suggested in the 
original plan independent of one another, so far as seeding was con- 
cerned; would eliminate the intermediate hardwood cro}), and would 
enable the rotation to be materially shortened. In such a case it 
might be well to introduce another thinning about the eighty-fifth 
year. A too-intensive system of management, however, for the pro- 
duction of first quality spruce sawlogs v/ill not be justified. Com- 
petition Vv'ith white pine similarly managed would make such an 
undertaking entirely unprofitable. 

Figure 3, based on actual measurements in old-field spruce stands, 
shows graphicall}^ the influence the number of trees per acre has upon 
the development of the stand, particularly on average breast-high 
diameter and yield. 

Overcrowding in })loi, 39 is particularly apparent from the under- 
development of breast-high diameter and of board-foot contents. 
In contrast with this is the understocking in ])lot 17, v%diich gave ri^e 



THE RED SPRUCE. 



59 



to an abnormal diameter development as well as of board-foot con- 
tents and a less-than-normal cubic and cord volume. The full effect 
of understocking is obviously obscured by the better-than-averago 
height development of plot 17, which amounts to more than 10 feet 
above the average and would occasion a 12 to 15 per cent increase in 
volume. The subnormal total- basal area is the best index in this 
case. As is to be expected, the overstocked stand, plot 39, shows a 
maximum cubic and cord volimae. Plot 46 illustrates very well the 
benefits to be derived from a slight understocking such as would be 



CENT 



70i 
A 


\ 














\ 












-5:0 
30 
2.0 

/O 

+ 


\ 












\ 


1 


►..^ 








,A 


/ 


""^ 


^^ 








\ /-. 


< 


^^ ^ 


■-~y 


^^^-^ 


r / 


'X 


\^ 


^ 
/ 


X ^ 






y'A 


/ y 


^ 


^^ 


r /^ 


l-y 


B 


«♦ 
,j«,« 




^/ 




/^ 


A 


30 
40 
SO 

c 

en 


'>' ,-' 


/ 


r 


r 




r 


/ 






A =Plor 33 a^ed 63 yrs. 
S=P/ot4e a^ed €7 yrs. 
C = P/ot/7 aged SSyrs. 


/ 






/ 










1 



Fig. 2-— Effect of stocking on yield. Comparison of act ual me isiiiements of sample plots approximately 
65 years old, with the average measurements for a 6o-year-old stand in the second growth yield table. 
All stands Quality II and measm-cments are for dominant (including codoniinant) and intermediate 
trees only. Plottings are in percentages of the normal or average values of the different factors. 

brought about by thinning. Thus, with a normal height growth a 
13 per cent understocking was accompanied in this instance by 
increases of 8 per cent in basal area, 12 per cent in average diameter, 
16 per cent in board-foot yield, 9 per cent in cubic-foot yield, an 11 
per cent in cordwood yield. 

BRUSH DISPOSAL. 

One of the most potent sources of danger to spruce forests in general 
I is the brush and, more particularly, the lops or branch wood which 
I Utter the ground after logging. The culled logs and tops from which 
I the branches have been lopped do not of themselves constitute a 



60 BL'LLETIK .144, U. S. DEFAKTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

material source of danger, provided they aje brought into contact 
with the soil and rapid decay thus induced. Spruce branch wood, 
however, on account of its resinous character, is particularly inflam- 
mable and resistant to decay, and constitutes a fire menace for several 
years when unlopped and from 7 to 10 years when lopped. In the 
forests where spruce is the predominating species, and particularly 
in the dense second-growth woods, an enormous cjuantity of such 
branch wood litters the cutting area. The ground is likewise covered 
with a dense mantle several inches in depth of dr}" needle litter, small 
twigs, and old cones. ^Ul this debris when exposed to the action of 
sun and wind with the cutting off of the forest cover, is quickly dried 
out and remains for several years an acute fire menace. The excessive 
branch-wood litter following lumbering and the deep humus cover 
also greatly hinder spruce reproduction on such areas and help the 
hardwoods and balsam to take possession through their superior 
ability to force their way to mineral soil. 

When the selection sj'stem or other partial clearance cuttings are 
used or where the present age of spruce to be cut-is not great, and where 
also a subsequent cut is dependent upon the maturing of seedlings or 
small trees which are on the ground at the time of the first cutting, 
the disposal of brush by burning is ordinarily not necessary unless the 
cut-over area is one on which there is special danger of fire getting a 
start. 

BRANCH WOOD LOPPED AND SCATTERED OR PILED. 

If onh^ a little brush is produced and the fire danger is remote, the 
})rush from the carefully lopped tops may be scattered about over 
the ground, thus hastening its decay. This method has given satis- 
faction where it has been tried in certain instances in the Adirondacks 
at a cost of fronx 15 to 25 cents per thousand board feet of lumber cut. 
\Vhere more brush is produced than can safely be disposed of in this 
manner, the tops should be lopped and the branch wood piled. This 
will bring the larger material in contact with the soil, thus hastenmg 
decay. The segregation of the more inflamm.able material in compact 
})odies will reduce to a minimum the hindrance to reproduction and 
will effect a corresponding reduction in the danger from a rapid spread 
of lire should one start on the area. 

BRUSH BURNED AS LOGGING PROCEEDS. 

Excessive amounts- of brush such as arise from the clean cutting 
of dense pure stands should be disposed of by burning. The most 
economical means of doing this is to burn the brush as the logging 
progresses. This is feasible when the ground is covered with snow or 
is damp so as to prevent the spread of fire. Small fires are started 
near each cutting crew and as the trees are felled the branches are 
lopped by the swampers and tlirown into the fire. As the cutting 



Bui. 544, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 




FiQ. 1.— An Unlopped Top. A Fire Menace for Fully 15 Years After Cutting. 




FiQ. 2.— A Properly Lopped Top. All Parts Brought in Contact with the 
Ground, Promoting Decay and thus Materially Reducing the Fire Hazard 
After from 5 to 7 Years. 



BRUSH DISPOSAL: TOP-LOPPING. 



u s r p' c' A 



Plate VI! 




Fi3. 1.— Brush Properly Piled Ready for Burning. 




Fig. 2.— Brush which was Cut and Piled in September being Burned 
IN Late December (18 Inches of Snow). 



BRUSH DISPOSAL: PILED AND BURNING. 



THE RKD SPRUCE. Gl 

rocedes from a firo and it is impracticablo to build a new one, the 
whole top is hauled near the fire h}^ the skidders before being trimmed. 
The advantages of the method are several. The brush is disposed 
of as the logging proceeds, leaving the ground free for skidding. 
The cost of handling is kept to a minimum, since the branch wood 
is handled only once and does not require to be cut up small to insure 
being completely destroyed, smce the tops burn readily, oven on the 
snow or in stormy weather. The time of logging in these forests, 
particularly those in the Northeastern States and New York, is 
generally the late fall or early wmter when the weather is damp or 
snowy and the danger of the fire spreading is almost negligible. By 
this method a minimum of area is burned over, which is of importance 
when there is young growth on the ground to be protected. A too 
dense young growth or deep snow at the time of logging makes the 
method impracticable, but for the stands here considered these 
, hindrances will seldom be encountered. 

BRUSH PILED FOR BURNING. 

\\ here cutting is done in the spring for peeled pulp wood the weather 

conditions may not be favorable for the use of the method just de- 

, scribed. In this case the brush would be piled when convenient and 

I the burning deferred until subsequent damp weather or until after 

, the first snow of the succeedmg whiter. Brush pilmg is best carried 

< on in conjunction with the cuttmg and skidding operations. It is 

(' then only necessary to employ one extra man, who cuts up and piles 

I the branches as they are lopped from the stem. The brush is thus 

\ immediately cleared away for the skidding of the logs and a second 

jhandlmg avoided, which means a considerable savmg in expense. 

I Then, too, more efficient work results when the men who trim tlie 

I pile work together. Supervision is also less costly when the brush 

pilmg is made a part of the logging work tlian when it is a separate 

operation. 

Brush piles should be small, not over 10 feet across and 6 feet high, 
with the branch wood closely and systematically piled, tops of the 
'branches toward the center of the pile, the small branches in the 
'bottom to facilitate the firing of the pile, and the piles well isolated 
jfrom one another, from down logs, lopped tops, reproduction, and the 
(trees to be left standing. Trimmed sticks leaned against the pile 
hold it in shape, keep it from being blown over, and render it more 
compact for burning. Compactness in piling is the key to efficient, 
clean burning. Loosely piled brush re([uires repifing or constant 
tending when burning to insure complete destruction, both of which 
operations are expensive. The cost of piling and burning varies 
with the condition of the stand between 10 and 50 cents per thou- 
sand board feet of timber cut. 

\ 



62 BULLETIN" ;344, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGEICULTURE. 

BURNING THE PILED BRUSH. 

Careful organization of the work should precede the burning of 
piled brush. A sufficient force of men equipped with fire-fighting 
implements should be on hand to prevent the fii-e from getting beyond 
control. Burning should not be attempted in windy or dry weather. 
The most opportune time is after the first snow of winter. The 
piles are then dry enough to burn well, except for the outer snow- 
covered layer. There is little or no danger of the fire running along 
the ground, and the snow cover on the branches of the standing 
trees affords the necessary protection against their injury by the 
rising flames. In the absence of snow, damp weather is essential 
to insure the ground being wet enough to prevent the spread of the 
fire. With a slight wind, other things being favorable, burning may 
take place, provided the fires are started on the leeward side of the 
area and progress against the wind. Likewise when brush is being 
burned on a slope the uppermost piles should be started first, the 
progress being from the upper to the lower level of the slopes. A 
further precaution is necessary where the piles are close, namely, 
that only every other or every third pile be fired at first and these 
allowed to burn down before the remaining ones are started. If all 
the piles are fired together, a strong uninterrupted upward current 
of heated air will inevitably cause injury to the remaining standing 
trees even if they have short crowns, well up from the ground. The 
alternate unburned piles act as a check by interposing cool air spaces, 
thus isolating seppTate fires. 

BROADCAST BURNING. 

Broadcast burning has been previously mentioned in connection 
with the clean cutting in strips of even-aged spruce stands. Here 
the object is not only to get rid of the large amount of brush which 
cuttings of this sort yield, but to eliminate as well the deep accumu- 
lation of undecomposed litter which greatly hinders the coming in of 
spruce seedlings and also constitutes a menace to what seedlings do 
succeed in getting established by endangering their future destruction 
by fii-e. It is also cheaper than pihng and burning. In using this 
method the logging is conducted in the ordinary way, except that the 
tops are lopped to allow the mass a better opportunity to settle and 
thus facilitate clean burning. 

The same or greater care must be exercised in using this method 
to insure its complete control. Favorable climatic conditions must 
be chosen and a weU-eciuipped force of men provided. The slash 
should be fu'ed at a time when it is chy enough to burn v/ell, but not 
so dry as to endanger the adjoining timber and allow the fire to get 
beyond control. The brush in the open area will dry out more rapidly 
after a drenchine; rain or moderate fall of snow than will the timbered 



THE RED SPRUCE. 63 

area, so that if the fire is properly timed the brusli civii ])e burned 
while the timbered area is still too damp to burn freely. 

Isolating and subdividing hurning area. — The area to be burned 
over must first be isolated from the contiguous uncut areas ])y the 
clearing of all inflammable matter from wide strips on all sides. This 
may be accomplished by throwing all tops and lops for a distance of 
from 20 to 40 feet from the edge in tov/ard the center of the cleared 
area. It would be preferable, though, to clear away, pile, and burn 

< all brush on such strips in the manner previously described before 
attempting to burn the remainder. If the cleaned area is of con- 

! siderable extent, a wise precaution would be to pile and burn similar 
fire lines through the middle, thus dividing the area into halves or 
quarters. If the area is small, the logging roads will serve as inter- 
mediate fire lines. 

With the necessary control lines cleared and burned, the general 
burning would begin at the leeward side or along the uj^per end if the 
cleared strip is on a hillside. The plots between logging roads would 
serve as units for burning. Only alternate plots along the leeward 
or uphill front should be kindled, and these should be allowed to 
burn down before another set is fired. 

The method is unquestionably more dangerous than l)urning in 
piles, demanding a larger force to handle it. Careful judgment in 

I the choice of time for burning is essential. The method should never 
be employed where the mineral soil is thin or nearly lacking as is the 

'i case on many of the steep, bowlder-strewn upper slopes in both New 
Hampshire and the Adirondacks. Under such circumstances the 
main purpose would be defeated and the slopes rendered barren and 

i unproductive 

LIGHT BURNING. 

Under certain conditions the annual or periodic burning of the 
litter under growing stands might be advisable. Wliere there are. 
dense, even-aged, planted, or natural stands in wliich thinnings are 
not to be made and therefore humus disintegrations can not be con- 
trolled, an occasional light burning would afford protection from 
damage by an uncontrolled ground fire during a drought. The soil 
would also be put in a more receptive condition for reproduction when 
the final cutting was made. The operation requires extreme care, 
otherwise its purpose will be defeated. 

The recommendation for the use of this means of fu-e protection 
and soil improvement is qualified and made contingent upon the 
adoption of the following precautions: 

The stand to be thus treated must be established on moderately 
deep mineral soil. 

Except where the slope is very gentle, any accumulation of litter 
should be removed from the upslope side of the trees Ix^fore burning. 



64 BULLETIN 544, U. S. DEPAETMEXT OF AGEICULTUEE. 

The burning should not bo undertaken until the trees are suffi- 
ciently large to have developed a suitable thickness of corky bark to 
afford the necessary protection from injury, and are sufficiently 
cleared of their lower branches to afford opportunity for the fire 
tenders to get about easily and to control the fire. 

In the absence of roads or other cleared areas wliich might be used 
for fire control, ground-cleared fire lines should be provided around 
the border and possibly at intervals vrithin the stand, particularl}- 
if a hillside is to bo burned. 

Burning should be restricted to a time, preferably early spring, 
when the loose top litter is dry but the under layers and soil are 
damp. The burning must not be allowed to reach to mineral soil. 

A sufficient force of men proj^erly equipped for fire fighting should 
be in attendance to check a too deep burning and prevent the fire 
gettmg beyond control. 

The plan of burning in strips along a well-defined an(] protected 
front with gradual progress away from it should be followed. All 
other precautions mentioned elsewhere should be carefully observed. 

I jght burning is not advisable in selection stands where the repro- 
duction and young growth form a distinct asset, since they would 
inevitably be injured or destroyeil. It has a place where dense, 
even-aged stands are to be cut clean and reproduced by natural regen- 
eration methods, although too much emphasis can not be laid on the 
thmger of fire escaping and the taking of every precaution necessary 
to prevent it. 

SOWING AND PLANTING. 

It is highly probable that it will eventually be found profitable to 
plant manj' of the spruce areas when they are cut over, rather than 
to wait for the slower and less certain restocking by natural means. 
This wiU come first on those areas at present covered with even-aged i 
stands and such of the selection stands as are understocked with young : 
growth or chiefly cut for pulp wood. 

A comparison of yields will suffice to show the advantages to be 
attained by planting over cutting under the selection system. Thus 
the average yield per acre of spruce in Maine at the present time, 
cutting to a 12-inch diameter limit, is placed by lumbermen at about 
2,000 board feet. With a diamieter limit of 12 inches, a period of 49 
years must elapse before a similar amount can again be harvested. 
It is obvious that a cut to S inches would still yield material of a size 
suitable for pulp wood and would increase the present cut per aero 
to about 3,000 feet board measure ^ (5 cords) and reduce proportion- 
ately the cost of logging. But with an 8-inch diameter limit it is 

• The approximate correctness of this figure is borne out by a yield table prepared for the " Lower 
spruce and hardwood lands" in Maine, by Hosmer, appearing in the report of the forest commissionor, 
Maine, 1902. 



THE RED SPEUCE. 65 

quite probable that a second cut could not again be secured short of 
100 years, and it would also be increasingly difficult, if not impos- 
sible, to secure satisfactory natural restocking. 

By comparison the same land managed under a system of clean 
cutting and planting could reasonably be expected in 60 years to 
yield at least 50 cords from trees 8 inches and over in diameter at 
breast height and an additional 10 cords from trees between 6 and 8 
inches, or a total of 60 cords. A further advantage, though of minor 
importance, is that with the planted stand the material produced 
would be uniformly of a size to be easily handled by hand in the bolt. 
If handled in the log, the cost of logging would be somewhat more 
than the cost of handling larger timber. 

DIRECT SEEDINO. 

Under certain circumstances it may be found advantageous to sow 
the seed broadcast in the places where the future forest is to ])e, 
simulating methods of nature. Tliis will give satisfactory results 
where an abundance of seed can be secured cheaply and where an 
extensive area too stony or othenvise encumbered to admit of planting 
economically is to be reforested, but only as the result is viewed from 
the standpoint of the whole. Acre for acre the result will be less 
satisfactory than planting, particularly in commercial reforestation, 
for there will be many bare places, which will increase the cost in 
proportion to the amount of land thatrlies unproductive throughout 
the life of the resulting crop. If the bare spots are planted later, that 
wiU increase the cost. Other methods of a more or less extensive 
I character are: Broadcasting the seed on previously plowed strips; 
planting with a corn planter; or hand planting in prepared seed spots. 
These methods are not ordinarily weU adapted to red spruce; for as 
the intensiveness of the method increases, the cost very nearly 
approaches that of planting seedlings, which would be much more 
likely to succeed. 

PLANTING. 

On account of the tenderness of spruce, its exacting demands on 
the quality of the seedbed, and its slow growth in early youth, much 
more satisfactory results will be obtained in reforestation by plant- 
ing than by sowing. The choice of stock is of great importance. If 
tho ground cover is dense, the soil wet or dry or subject to freezing, 
or if direct insolation is strong, especially thrifty plants must l^e used, 
such as three of four year old nursery transplants. For planting on 
an area from which the surface cover has been recently removed and 
the mineral soil exposed two-year-old nursery seedlings will suffice, 
provided the situation is sheltered and the too prolific development 
of brush and weeds can be prevented. A slight nurse cover for 
84949°— Bull. 544—17 5 



66 BULLETIN .514^ U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGKICULTURE. 

spruce is of advantage during the period when it is becoming estab- 
lished. Wliere each tree represents an investment, however, th(^ 
nurse cover must not be allowed to interfere with the seedling's nor 
mal development. 

Costs. — The following cost data for red spruce are based on the 
experience of the State of New York in its reforestation operations ; 

AA'erage market price of spruce seed (ranging in price from S3 to S7 ). per pound . . $4. Sn 

Cost of collecting seed $0. 90- 1. 5(» 

Cost per thousand to raise 2-year-old seedlings (based on 500.000 seedlings annu- 
ally) 1. 3: ; 

Three-year-old transplants 3. 2:i 

Four-year-old transplants 3. 7:', 

The cost per acre of making plantations, using various aged stock 
and different spacings was as follows: Using 2-year-old seedlings 
spaced 4 by 4 feet apart (2,722 trees per acre), .111.79; spaced 5 by 5 
feet (1,742 trees per acre), $7.54; spaced 6 by 6 feet (1,210 trees per 
acre), $5.24; using 3-year-old transplants spaced 4 by 4 feet, $19.41; 
spaced 5 by 5 feet, $12.42; spaced 6 by 6 feet, $8.63; using 4-year-old 
transplants spaced 4 by 4 feet, $22.67; spaced 5 by 5 feet, $14.51; 
spaced 6 by 6 feet, $10.08. No allowance is made in the above fig- 
ures on planting for the cost of transporting the seedlings from the 
nursery to the planting site, since it is too variable. 

SOURCES OF PLANTINC STOCK. 

Because of the slow growth in early life of red spruce planting 
stock, it is difficult to handle both in nursery transplanting and in 
the field where 2-year seedlings are used. This unquestionably Mall 
be a strong factor in limiting the planting of this species, since both 
white and Noi'way spruce (Picea canadensis and P. excdsa) are much 
more satisfactory in this respect. For small operations, the purchase 
of planting stock will usually be cheaper than the raising of home- 
grown stock. Wliere extensive planting is to be undertaken, how- 
ever, the field planting and nursery work can be coordinated to 
advantage and placed under the direction of an experience*! manager, 
in which event a local nursery is (h^sirable.* 

The use of wild seedlings of this species, if collected as they occur 
in the woods without selection and transplanted directly to the per- 
manent site, would yield very irregular and unsatisfactory results. 
Such stock would be of all sizes and of various ages from 1 to 10 
or 15 years, with poorly developed, widely ramifying root systems 
and spindly tops. More uniform results would be obtained if the 
seedlings were set in nursery lines for a year, and a careful selec- 
tion and grading made possible. The wild transplants would still be 

' A detailed description of the subject of raising and planting coniferous seedlings will be found in 
Bullefiin 76, Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture,. '-How to Grow and Plant Conifers in the 

Northeastern States." 



THE KKD SPRUCE. 67 

inferior to straight nursery-grown stock; and the expense of trans- 
planting, tending in the nursery lines, and grading would bring their 
cost up to that of the more satisfactory nursery-grown seedlings. 

SPACING IN PLANTING. 

For general commercial planting a spacing of 5 by 6 feet or 6 ])y 6 
feet apart is recommended. Moderately close ])lanting is necessary 
with spruce to stimulate its growth in height and to provide for the 
closing of the crown cover and suppression of its lower branches. 
Such a stand properly thinned should show a final }4eld in 45 yeare 
of from 32 to 55 cords per acre in addition to the intermediate yields 
from thinnings. Wider planting, as, for instance, 8 by 8 feet or 8 by 
10 feet, is advocated in some quarters to obviate the necessity of 
thinning under a short rotation for the production of puipwood. 
The timber produced by such a method would be short, big-butted, 
with a quick taper, and clothed with green, or at best poorly sup- 
pressed, dead branches well down to the ground. Such a stand 
might be expected to yield between three-fourths and 1 cord per acre 
per annum with a 30 to 35 year rotation. 

ROTATION. 

Some consideration has already been given to the rotation in con- 
nection with the discussion of methods of cutting and of thinnings. 
As indicated m Table 17, a rotation of from 55 to 60 years under 
I average, natural, even-aged conditions will yield a maximum of 
i puipwood volume. Judicious tliinnings should reduce this rotation 
from 5 to 10 years, increasing the gross volume, mcluding the volume 
of yield from thinnings, at the same time. For saw timber and dimen- 
sion stuff a rotation of from 100 to 120 years should yield a satisfac- 
tory return under management for selection as well as even-aged 
forest conditions, as shown by Tables 15 and 16. In the case of 
selection forests, of course, the quantitative yield would be small as 
compared to even-aged stands, but this disadvantage should be 
offset to an appreciable extent by the better than average quality 
yield. 



APPENDIX. 

VOLUME TABLES. 

Tlio volume tal)l('S for spruce which follow ai'<> divided l>etween 
the various units of measure aud comprise 12 hoard-foot tahles, 
4 cuhic-foot tables, and 3 cord tahles. 

Board-foot tahUs.^Tho hoard-foot tahles are all for old-growth 
spruce, except one of the New Hampshire tahles, which is for old- 
field spruce. vSince a different log rule is in use in each of the four 
principal spruce States, the data in each State has heen worked up 
by the Scrihner Decimal C rule for purposes of comparison. 

Of the four Maine ta])les two are based on the total height of the 
tree and two on the number of 16-foot logs, each according to the 
Scribner Decimal C and Maine log rules. 

The New Hampshire tables are live, one of which, Table 29, is for 
second-growth spruce. The old-growth volumes are given in terms 
both of the New Hampshire and Scribner Decimal C rules on the 
basis of total height and number of 16-foot logs. 

Both New York tahles are according to the Scrihner Decimal C 
rule, one of which is based on the total height of the tree and the 
other on the number of 16-foot logs. Although the Standard is not 
a hoard-foot measure at all, tables of volume in terms of Standards 
(Dmunick rule) on the basis of total height and of 16-foot logs are here 
included for purposes of comparison. 

The West Mrginia tahles are diviiled between the Scrihner Decimal 
C and Doyle rules, each on the basis of the total height of the tree 
and on the number of 16-foot logs. 

Cuhic-foot taUes.^The cubic-foot tables (Nos. 38 to 41, inclusive) 
are all for old-growth spruce except No. 39 for New Hampshire, 
which is a combination of old-growth and "old-field" spruce. These 
tables being all for approximately the same utilization at stump and 
top, afford a good opportunity for comparison of development in the 
different localities. According to the tahles given, the diameters 
and heights run about the same for Maine and New Hampshire, but 
the Maine trees are generally fuller bodied, as indicated hy a larger 
cubic content for the same diameter and height. Had the New 
Hampshire data been from the northern instead of the southern 
part of the State, it would doubtless have exceeded that in Maine in 
height and diameter and in volume as well. This is because spruce 
68 



THE EED SPBUCE. 



69 



is gcnorall}' holievcd to reach its Now England optimum in nortlicrn 
New Hampshire. For equal heights and diameters Maine shows 
fuiler-])odied boles than West Virginia, 3'et in general development 
West Virginia greatly excels. 

Cordwood tables. — Old-field sjM-iice is most commonly sold by the 
cord for pulp, sometimes rough and at other times peeled. Ilenco 
Tables 42, 43, and 44 were prepared for New Hampshire conditions, 
where old-field growth is most X)revalent. Table 43, based on 5-inch 
utilization in the tops, was derived from Table 44 by interpolation. 
Table 43 was used for scaling tlie sample plots for Table 17. 



Table 21. — Board-foot volumf of red spruce in Maine, according to the Scrihner Decimal 
C rule and total height of tree. 

[curved.] 



Piameler 

breast 
high. 




Total height of tree— feet. 




Basi.-^. 


40 


50 60 70 

! 1 


.80 


90 




Volume— board feet. 






Ir.chcs. 

s 

9 

10 

11 

\^'. '.'.'.'..'. 

14 

15 


15 
25 

35 
50 
<i0 
SO 
90 


10 
20 
30 
45 
60 
.SO 
100 
120 
140 
160 


15 
25 
40 
.55 
70 
90 
120 
140 
170 
200 
2?,0 
260 


' 




Trcca. 

s 

18 
20 

27 
20 
22 
13 
11 
14 
19 
6 
6 
6 
4 
4 










6:) 
so 

110 
130 
160 
190 
220 
250 
290 
330 
380 
430 
480 
5.30 



















170 
200 
240 
280 
330 
380 
430 
490 
550 
610 
670 
730 






l(i 


260 
310 
360 
.i20 
4,80 
540 
610 
680 
750 
830 




IS 




19 




20 






21 






22 






23.. 






24 






25 








2 










241 



^ Based on taper curve-*, scaled as S and 16 foot Iog.«. Stump height, 1 foot; diameter inside bark of top, 
b to 9 inches. 
Data collected by R. S. Hosmer in riscataquis County in 1902. 



10 



BULLETIN 544. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 



Table 22. — Board-foot volmtie of red sjyruce in Maine according to the Scribner Decimal C 
rule and number of 16-foot logs. 

[CURVED.] 



Diam- 
eter 

breast 
high. 


Number of 16-foot logs. 


Basis. 

TrefS. 

•S i 
11 1 
IS 
29 
21 
27 
20 
22 
13 
11 
14 
19 

6 

6 
4 
4 

2' 


1 


n 


2 


2i 


3 


3i 


4 


4* 


' 


10 
15 
20 
25 
35 
40 


20 
25 
30 
40 
50 
60 
70 
90 




Volume— board feet 








Inches. 

S. .'..'. 

9 

10.... 

11.... 

12.... 






























35 
50 
70 
SO 
100 
120 
140 
160 














(it) 

SO 

100 
120 
140 
170 
190 
220 
250 
















:;:;:::: 







110 
130 
160 
190 
220 
250 
2.S0 
330 
370 
410 
















: 






170 
200 
240 
280 
320 
370 
410 
450 
490 
540 








15 










16 






270 
310 
360 
410 
450 
500 
560 
610 
()70 
730 

























400 
450 
500 
560 
620 
690 
760 
830 










20 








550 
620 
690 
770 
850 
930 


21 


1 ■ 


.. 




22 


















24.... 











25.... 


''. 

i 










•>4l 
.41 



Based on taper curves, scaled as 8 and 16 foot logs. Stump height 
6 to 9 inches. 
Data collected by R. S. Hosmer in riscata'iuis County in 1902. 



foot: diameter inside ba.-k of top. 



Table 23. — Board-foot volume of red spruce in Maine according to the Maine rule and 
total height of tree. 

[CURVED.] 



Diameter 
breast 
high. 




Total height 


of tree— feet. 




1 
Basis. 


40 


50 60 


70 


80 


90 




Volume— 


board feet 






Inches. 

8. '.'.'.'.'.'.'. 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 


15 
25 
40 
50 
60 
80 
90 
110 


20 
35 

50 
70 

SO 


25 
40 
60 
80 
100 

VM) 








Trees. 

S 

18 
29 
21 

22 
13 
11 

14 
19 
6 
6 

6 
4 
4 














90 

no 

130 
160 
190 
220 
250 
290 
320 
360 
400 
440 
480 
520 














120 1 140 
HO 170 
170 190 
190 220 






210 
250 
2.H0 
320 
370 
410 
450 
500 
550 
600 
650 
700 






Jj. 


310 
360 
410 
460 
520 
580 

750 

810 


17 




250 
270 


18 






. . . 


20 

21 

22 

23 


i 


24 














2 












241 



Based on taper curves. Logs scaled in lengths of from 8 to 16 feet. Stump height, Ifoot; diameter inside 
lark of top, 6 inches. 
Data collected by R. S. Hosmer in Piscataquis County in 1902. 



THE BED SPRUCE. 



71 



Table 24, — Board-fool volume oj red spruce in Maine according to the Maine rule and 
number of 16-fool logs. 

[curved.] 



Diameter 
breast, 
high. 


Number of 16-foot logs. 


Basis. 


1 


11 


2 


2A 3 


- 


4 


4i 








^'olu me— board feet 








Inches!. 

7 

s. . 

9 

10 


20 
30 
35 
45 
50 
60 


25 
35 
45 
50 
70 
80 
90 












Trrcs. 

n 

IS 
29 
21 
27 
20 
22 
13 
11 
14 
19 

6 

6 

w 


40 
50 
70 
.SO 
100 

no 

130 
1.50 
170 





















SO 

100 

no 

130 
150 
170 
200 
220 
250 



















140 
160 
180 
210 
230 
2f)0 
290 
330 
3(50 
390 














14 


220 
240 
270 
300 
340 
370 
410 
450 
500 
550 







■■ 15. . 










IG 






310 

■m 

390 
420 
460 
510 
560 
610 
670 
740 




17 








1 18... . 








440 
480 
520 
570 
t)20 
680 
740 
820 


19. 








20 










21 










22. . 




















24 










25 1 












2 j 














241 1 



Based ou taper curves. Logs scaled in lengths of trom Sto 16 feet. Stump height, 1 foot; diameter inside 
bark of top, 6 inches. 
Data collected by R. S. Hosmer in Piscataquis County in 1902. 

Table 25. — Board foot volume of red spruce in New Hampshire according to the Scrihner 
Decimal C rule and total height of tree. 

[curved.] 



Diameter 
breast 
high. 


Total height of tree— feet. 


Bfisis. 


30 


40 


50 


60 


70 


SO 


Volume— board feet. 


Indus. 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 


20 
26 
32 
36 
40 


24 
32 
40 
49 

58 
68 
78 
90 
100 
120 
130 


31 
40 
49 
59 
72 
85 
99 
110 
130 
1.50 
170 
190 
210 
240 
270 


40 
52 
63 
76 
90 
100 
120 
140 
1(50 
180 
210 
240 
270 
300 
330 
370 
410 
4.50 
490 


55 

67 
80 
95 

no 

130 
150 
170 
200 
230 
200 
290 
320 
3(50 
400 
440 
4S0 
.'i30 
580 




Trees. 
76 
75 
87 
76 
87 
54 

33 
36 
24 
21 
13 
9 
3 
3 




140 
160 
180 
210 
240 
270 
310 
350 
390 
430 
470 
520 
570 
620 
(170 


14 




15 




16 




17. .. . 




18. . 




19 




20 . 






21 






22 






23 . . . 






24 










25 










26 








3 










668 

















Based on taper curves; scaled mostly as 16.3-foot logs, with a few shorter logs where necessary. 
Stump height^, 1 foot: diameter inside bark of top, 6 inches. 
Data collected by T. S. Woolsey, jr., in Grafton County in 1903. 



72 



BULLETIN 544, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGEICULTUEE. 



Table 2i].— Board-foot volume of red spruce in New Hampshire accordmg to the Scribner 
Decimal C rule and number of 16-foot logs. 

[curved.] 



Diamei.er 
breast 
high. 


Number of 16-foof logs. 


Basis. 


^ 


n 


2 


21 


3 


3^ 


4 






Vol" 


me— board feet. 






Indus. 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
H 
15 
16 
17 


20 
21 
22 
23 
24 


30 
33 
37 
42 

48 
56 
65 
75 


43 
46 
50 
56 
63 
72 
81 
92 
100 
120 
130 


59 

63 

76 
85 
95 
110 
120 
130 
150 
170 
190 
210 
240 
270 








Trees. 
76 

75 
87 
76 
87 
54 

33 
3(i 
24 
21 
13 
9 
3 
3 








89 
98 
110 
120 
130 
150 
170 
190 
210 
240 
270 
300 
330 
360. 
400 
440 
480 










140 
150 
170 
190 
210 
240 
270 
300 
330 
360 
400 
440 
480 
520 
5(» 








210 
230 
260 
290 
320 
350 
380 
420 
4(.0 
500 
550 
600 
650 










18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 










:":::::"i:::::::::: 


















































3 

668 











Based on taper curves; scaled mostly as 16.3-foot logs, -with a few shorter logs where necessary. 
Stump height, 1 foot; diameter inside bark of top, 6 inches. 
Data collected by T. S. Woolsey, jr., in Grafton County in 1903. 



Table 27 .-—Board-foot volume of red spruce in Neiv Hampshire according to the New 
Hampshire rule and total height of tree. 

[curved.] 



Diameter 
breast 
high. 




Total height of tree— feet. 




Basis. 


30 


" 


50 


60 


70 


80 




Volume— board feet. 






Inches. 

8 
9 
10 

12 
13 
14 

16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
20 


20 
35 

45 

58 
72 


30 
43 
56 
70 
85 
100 
120 
140 
160 
180 
200 


36 
50 
66 
83 
100 
120 
140 
160 
180 
200 
230 
260 
290 
320 
350 


44 

to 

78 
97 
120 
140 
ICO 
180 
210 
240 
270 
300 
330 
360 
400 
440 
470 
510 
540 


51 
71 
91 
110 
130 
150 
180 
210 
240 
270 
300 
340 
380 
420 
46,0 
.500 
540 
580 
620 




Trees. 
76 
75 
87 
76 
87 
54 
68 
33 
38 
24 

1 




100 
120 
1.50 
180 
210 
240 
270 
310 
350 
390 
430 
470 
510 
560 
610 
660 
710 




































. ..' 
















3 








668 



Based on taper curves; scaled mostly as 16.3-foot logs, with a few shorter logs where necessary 
Stump height, 1 foot; diameter inside bark of top, 6 inches. 
Data collected by T. S. Woolsey, jr., in Grafton County in 1903. 



THE RED SPRUCE. 



73 



Table 28. — Board-foot volume of red spruce in Nru' Hampshire according to the JVei 
Hampshire rule and number of 16-foot logs. 

[jURVEn.] 



t 

Number of 16-foot logs. 


Basis. 

Tires. 

76 

S7 
70 
87 
51 
68 
33 
SO 
24 
21 
13 
9 
3 


IMameter^ 
breast . 1 
high. 


'^ 


2 


2} 


3 


3i 


4 


Volume— board feet. 


8 26 

9 ; 35 

1? i 55 

12 1 66 

13 


34 
43 
53 
64 
76 
88 
100 
120 


49 

67 
78 
92 
110 
120 
140 
100 
180 
200 


()5 
75 
.S6 
98 
110 
120 
140 
160 
ISO 
200 
220 
250 
280 
310 
340 











110 
120 
130 
150 
170 
190 
210 
240 
270 
300 
330 
360 
390 
420 
460 
500 
540 






160 
180 
200 
220 
250 
280 
310 
340 
370 
410 
459 
490 
530 
570 
CIO 








240 
270 
300 
330 
360 
390 
430 
470 
510 
550 
590 
630 
670 




16 


17 




18 . 




19 




23 


t 


21 




22 




23 




21 :. . 








25 ' 








23 1 




3 

6-58 






1 





T.a'sed on taper curves; s-^aled mostly as 16.3-foot logs, with a few shorter logs where ncres 
Stump height 1 foot. Diameter inside bark of top, 6 inches. 
Data collected bv T. S. '".Voolsey, jr., in Grafton County in 1903. 



Table 29. — Board-foot volume of old-fuid red sprite in Nov Hampshire according to 
the A'ew Hampshire rule and total height of tree. 

[curved.] 



Diamrler 


Total height of tree— feet. 










brea-t 


40 


50 


60 


Basis. 


high. 










Board feet 




Inches. 








Trees. 


7 


18 


23 


28 




s 


30 


37 


44 




9 


42 


50 


59 




li) 


55 


65 


76 




11 


OS 


80 


93 




12 




96 


111 




13 




113 


129 




14 




129 


148 







' Impossible to give, old table. 

Scaled "straight and sound " in tree lengths cutting to a diameter outside the bark of 6 inches. If logs 
are cut to a limit of 4 inches in the top, trees under 10 inches will scale about 10 per cent more; those o\ er 
10 inches about 1 per cent more. 

Based on the measurement of 579 trees made by T. S. Woolsey, jr., in 1903. 



74 



BULLETIN 544, V. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 



Table 30. — Board-foot volume of red spruce in New York accordhig to the Scribner 
Dermial C rule and total height of tre£. 

[curved.] 



Diameter 
breast 
high. 


Total height of tree— feet. 


Basis. 


30 40 


" i "" 


70 


80 


90 


100 


Volume— 


)oard feet . 








Inches. 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 


18 26 
26 1 35 
35 t 45 
45 ; 56 
53 67 
78 


34 
43 

68 
82 
97 
110 
120 
140 
160 
180 


41 

•!:! 

82 
97 
120 
130 
150 
170 
190 
220 
250 
270 
300 
320 


48 
67 
78 
90 
110 
130 
100 
1.80 
200 
230 
2<i0 
2!)0 
320 
360 
400 
440 
490 
540 
600 




1 
1 


Trees. 
87 
63 
158 
178 
214 
136 
180 
112 
93 
79 

39 

44 

16 
6 
6 


75 
90 
110 
130 
160 
180 
210 
240 
270 
300 
340 
4 380 
420 
470 
530 
580 
640 
710 


.................... 


100 
130 
130 
180 
200 
230 
270 
300 
340 
380 
430 
480 
540 
600 
670 
740 
820 




140 
170 
200 
230 
200 
300 
340 
380 
430 
480 
540 
600 
670 
750 
840 
930 


90 


100 




















































1,507 



Diameter inside bark of top, 6 inches; stump height, 1 foot. Based on taper curves; scaled mostly as 
16.3-foot logs, with a few shorter logs wtiere nece»<;sary. 

Based in part on measurements taken under the direction of the Superintendent of State Forests, New- 
York, in Essex and Herkimer Counties, 1912. 



Table 31. — Board-foot volitiuc of red spruce in New York according to the Scribner 
Decimal (' rule and number of 16-foot logs. 

[CUKVED.l 



Diame- 
ter 
breast 
high. 


Number of 10-toot logs. 


Basis. 


1 


n 


2 


2i 3 3^ 


4 


i\ 


5 


v'olume— board feet. 


Inches. 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 


19 
24 
30 
30 
42 


32 
30 
41 

47 
54 
60 
67 


43 
49 
5(i 

05 
74 
84 
95 

120 
130 
140 


56 
64 
72 
81 
91 
100 
120 
130 
150 
100 
180 
200 
210 










Trees. 
87 
63 
158 
178 
214 
136 
180 
112 
93 
79 
77 

3 a 

44 
17 
16 
6 
6 
1 











85 i 100 
98 120 
110 130 
130 150 
140 170 
160 190 
180 210 
200 230 
220 260 
240 290 
260 320 
290 350 
320 380 
350 ' 410 
380 450 
410 480 
4,50 520 

1 














160 
180 
200 
220 
250 
270 
300 
340 
370 
410 
450 
490 
530 
580 
630 










230 
260 
290 
320 
350 
390 
4:30 
470 
520 
570 
620 
080 
750 


410 
4.50 
500 
550 
600 
660 
730 
800 
870 














:::::::: 
























































1,.507 



Based on taper curves; sealed mostly as 10.3-foot logs, with a few shoiter logs where necessary. Diameter 
inside bark of top, inches; stump height, 1 foot. 

Based in part on measurements taken under the direction of the Superintendent of State Forests. New 
York, in Es'sex and Herkimer Counties, 1912. 



THE RED SPRUCE. 



75 



Iablk 32. — Standard volume of red sprvce in Netr York according lo the Dimick rule 
and total height of tree. 

[crRvi:!).] 



Diame- 
ter 
breast 
high. 




Totalheight oftree- 


leet. 






liasis. 


30 j 40 


SO 60 1 70 

! 1 


80 


» 


100 


Volume— standards.! 


Inches. 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
IS 
19 
20 
21 
22 

24 
25 
2t5 


0. 14 0. 19 
.18 .24 
. 22 . 29 

34 

39 

45 

52 


0.24 
.30 
.37 
.44 
.52 
.00 
.69 

:S 

.95 
1.05 


0.29 
.30 
.44 
.54 
.04 
.74 
.84 
.94 
1.06 
1.18 
1.31 
1.43 
1.55 
1.69 
1.83 


0.32 
.41 
. 50 
.62 
.74 
.80 
.99 
1.12 
1.26 
1.40 
1. 57 
1.73 
1.90 
2.08 
2.27 
2.47 
2. 66 
2.85 
3.04 








Tree.i. 
87 
63 
158 
178 
214 
136 
180 
112 
93 
79 
77 
39 
44 
17 
16 


; 

1 








0.56 
.70 
.83 
.97 
1.12 
1.28 
1.44 
1.62 
1.80 
2.00 
2.22 
2.44 
2.67 
2.90 
3.14 
3.39 
3.64 










0.92 
1.07 
1. 24 
1.42 
1.61 
1.81 
2.03 
2.26 
2.51 
2.77 
3.04 
3.32 
3.61 
3.92 
4.23 


1. 36 
1.55 
1.76 
1.99 
2.23 
2.49 
2.78 
3.08 
3.39 
3.72 
4.06 
4.42 
4.80 




1 




I 




















' 






1 




I 








1,507 



I A Dimick standard i.s equal to the volume of a loi; 19 inches in diameter inside bark at the small end 
md 13 feet long. A uj'linder of these dimensions coniains 25.6 cubic feet. 



Diameter inside bark of top, 6 inches: stump height, 1 foot. Bas 
bot logs, with a few shorter logs where necessary. 

Based in part on measurements taken und.^r the direttion of tt 
iTork, in Essex and Herkimer Counties, 1912. 



a on taper curves; scaled mostly as 10.3- 
Superintendenl of State Forests, New 



Pahle 3d 



■Standard volume of red spruce in Neiv York according lo the Dimick rule 
and number of 16-foot logs. 

[CURVED.] 



Diame- 
ter 
breast 
high. 



V 

10 

11 

12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 



Number of 16-foot logs. 



Vol ume— standards . 



0.14 
.16 
.19 
.22 
.26 



0.22 
.24 
.28 
.32 
. 36 
.41 



0.29 


0.37 


.33 


.42 


..38 


.47 


.43 


.53 


.48 


.60 



.73 
.81 
.,S9 
.97 
1.05 
1.14 
1.22 



18 



1.29 
1.40 
1..51 
1.64 
1.77 
1.92 
2.07 
2.22 
2.38 



0.66 
.75 
.85 
.95 
1.06 
1.17 
1.29 
1.41 
1.54 

1^82 

2^14 
2.32 
2.51 
2.70 



0.98 
1.10 
1.23 
1. ,36 
1.50 
1.64 
1.80 
1.96 
2.14 
2.33 
2.53 
2.74 
2.96 
3.19 
3.44 



1.41 
1..56 
1.71 
1.88 
2.07 
2.17 
2.48 
2.69 
2.92 
3.16 
3.41 
3.68 
3.90 



2.39 
2. .59 
2.81 
3. 05 
3.31 
3.60 
3.90 
4.20 
4.51 



Trees. 
87 
63 

178 
214 
136 
180 
112 
93 
79 

39 
44 



1 A Dimick standard is equal to the volume of a log 19 inches in diameter inside bark at the small end 
md 13 feet long. A cylinder of these dimensions contains 25.6 cubic feet. 

Based on taper curves, scaled mostly as 10. 3-foot logs, with a few shorter logs where necessary. 
Diameter inside bark of top, 6 inches; stump height, 1 foot. 

Based in part on measurements taken under the direction of the Superintendent of State Forests, New' 
fork, in Essex and Herkimer Counties, 1912. 



BULLETIN 544; U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 



Table Si.— Board-foot volume of red spruce in West Virginia according to the Doyle 
rale and total height of tree. 

[CUKVED.] 



Diameter 
breast 


Heiglit of tree— foot. 


Basis. 


.50 


GO 


70 80 


90 


100 


110 




Volume— board foet. 






Inches. 

8 

9 

10 

11 


15 
25 
35 

45 


10 
30 
30 
40 
50 
70 
80 
100 
120 










Tms. 

10 

19 

40 

33 

42 

38 

29 

31 

23 

24 

16 

22 

18 

18 

15 

6 

8 

4 

5 

6 

3 

1 

2 










30 
45 
60 
80 
100 
130 
1.50 
180 
210 


35 
50 
70 
30 
120 
l.")0 
180 
210 
250 
280 
330 
380 
420 










80" 

100 
130 
160 
200 
240 
280 
330 
380 
440 
500 
560 
620 
630 
760 












140 

ISO 

220 

260 

310 

370 

430 

430 

560 

630 

700 

780 

860 

940 

1,040 

1,140 

1,240 

1.340 

1,440 

1,.540 

1,650 










210 
230 
350 
410 
470 
.540 
610 
630 
770 
860 
960 

i,o;o 

1 170 
1,290 
1,400 
1,530 
1,660 
1,800 
1,940 






J9 


20 .. .. 


21 




23 










26 .... 














29 






30 




..< 










" ■ 






33 


^ 






1 


34 


















416 



Based on tapt^r curves. Logs scaled in lengths from 8 to 17 feet. Stump height, 1 foot; diameter inside 
bark of top, 6 inches. 
Data collected by John Foley in Greenbrier County in 1903. 



THE EED SPRUCE. 



77 



Tai 



-Board-foot volume of red sprure in IIy.v/ Virginia according to the Doijle 
rale and number of IG-foot logs. 

[CURVED.] 



Diameter 
breast 
high. 




Number of 16-foot logs. 






6 


Basis. 

Tms. 
2 
10 
19 
40 
33 
42 
38 
29 
31 
23 
24 
16 

18 

18 

6 

6 

3 

2 


IJ 1 2 


2i 


3 3i 

i 


4 


U 


5 


5S 




Volume— board feet. 








Inches. 

8 

9 

10 


10 


10 




1 1 










25 
35 
45 




.. 






30 
40 
50 
70 
80 
100 


30 
45 
00 
80 
100 




:: 














12 




70 
i-0 
110 
140 
160 
190 
220 
250 
230 
330 
360 


80 
100 
130 
1.50 
l.SO 
220 
250 
290 
330 
370 
410 
460 
510 





























l.oO 
180 
210 
250 
2S0 
330 
370 
420 
470 
530 
590 
660 
740 



























240 
280 
320 
370 
420 
480 
540 
600 
670 
750 
820 
910 
1,000 
1,090 
1,180 






17 


















360 

410 

480 

.540 

610 

680 

760 

830 

910 

1,000 

1,030 

1,190 

1,290 

1 ,400 

1,520 

l,6.i0 

1,7.50 




"■■926" 
1,010 

1,100 
1,190 
1,300 
1,410 
1 ,520 
1.640 
1 ,7.50 
1,S70 


19 


i 





20 
















22 

















2} 






.. 














23 




1 





















28 












■■ 






1 






30 











31 


1 








32 












33 


1 










1 




;:;::::::::::::: 


















... 


















416 



Based on taper curves. Logs scaled in lengths fr 
bark of top, 6 inches. 
Data collected by John Foley in Greenbrier Coun 



om 8 to 17 feet. Slump iieight, 1 foot; diameter inside 



78 



BULLETIN 544, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGEICULTUEE. 



Table 36. — Board-foot volume of red spruce in West Virginia according to Scribner 
Decimal C rule and total height of tree. 

ICURVED.] 



Diameter 

breast 
high. 


Height of tree— feet. 




Basis. 

Trees. 
2 
10 
19 
40 
33 
42 
38 
29 
31 

24 
16 

22 
18 
18 
15 
6 
8 
4 

6 
3 
1 

2 


50 


60 


70 


80 


90 


100 


110 


Volume— board feet. 


Inches. 

a 

9 
10 
H 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 


r,: 


25 
35 
50 
70 
90 
120 
I. 50 
180 
210 






















60 
80 
110 

140 
170 
200 
230 
260 
300 


70 
90 
120 
150 
190 
220 
260 
300 
340 
390 
440 
4S0 
540 














140 
170 
210 
2.50 
300 
340 
390 
450 
500 
570 
630 
700 
770 
840 
910 












230 

280 

330 

380 

440 

500 

560 

630 

710 

780 

860 

940 

1,030 

1,130 

1,230 

1,340 

1 450 






■" 




i56- 

410 
480 
540 
610 

770 
860 
960 
1,050 
1, 150 
1,270 
1,390 
1,520 
1,660 
1.790 
i; 930 
2,060 
2,200 













































































































1,.570 
1,680 
1,790 
1,910 






















1 


. ... 


























416 



Based on tapiTCiu-vPs sealed as Ximd 16 footlogs. Stump height, 1 foot; diameter inside bark of top, 6 to 
• inches. 
Data collected by John Foley iu Greenbrier County in 1903. 



THE RED SPRUCE. 



79 



Table 37. — Board-foot volume of red spruce in West Virginia according to Scribner 
Decimal C rule and number of Id-foot logs. 

[CURVED.] 



Diameter 
bifiast 
hijih. 

Tuclus. 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
10 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 

24 
25 

28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 






Number of 16-fool logs. 








Basis. 


n 1 2 


21 


3 


1 1 
3i 4 iS 

! 1 


5 


5i 


6 


Volume— board fec( . 


25 


; 






: 




Tncx. 

2 

10 ; 
19 ' 
40 
33 
42 
38 
29 
31 
23 
24 
16 
22 
18 
18 
15 

6 

8 

l 

2 

i" 


25 40 
30 50 

: 60 

1 80 














70 
80 
100 
120 
140 
160 
190 


so 

100 
120 
140 
170 
190 
220 
250 
280 


























140 
160 
190 
220 
250 
280 
310 
3.50 
380 
420 












180 
220 
250 
280 
320 
360 
400 
440 
490 
530 










; 


240 
280 
320 
360 
400 
450 
510 
560 
620 
700 
770 
840 
910 


















3.50 

400 

450 

.510 

570 

640 

710 

780 

860 

940 

1,030 

1,120 

1,210 

1,290 

1,380 






; 






j 












5.50 

630 

710 

790 

880 

970 

1,070 

1,160 

1,2.50 

1,340 

1,440 

1,540 

1,620 

1,710 

1,810 

1,910 






:::::;■■ 

1,210 
1,310 
1,410 
1,510 
1,620 
1,730 
1,840 
1,950 
2,060 
2,180 
















1 


1 




■ 










[ 






:: i:::::::: 









, 1 








i ! ■ 






















' 













' 










1 














416 



Based on taper cm 
6 to 9 inchp,s. 
Data collected by John Foley in Greenbrier County in 1903 



scaled as S and 16 foot logs. Stump height, 1 foot; diameter inside bark of top, 
Foley in Greenbrier County in 1903. 
Table 38. — Cubic-foot voluinc of red spruce in Maine. 

[CUEVED.] 



Diameter 
bi'east 
high. 


Keightof tree— feet. 


Basis. 


40 


.50 


60 j 70 


80 


90 


Merchantable 


volume, including bark— cubic feet. 


Inches. 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 

u 

12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
IS 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 


3.0 
5.0 
7.0 
9.5 
12.0 
14.5 


6.5 
9.0 
11.5 
14.5 
17.5 
21.0 
25.0 
29.0 
33.5 
.38.5 


5.0 
7.5 
10.5 
13.5 
17.0 
20.5 
24.5 
28.5 
33.5 
38.5 
43.5 
49.0 
54.5 








Trees. 
5 
8 
11 
18 
29 
21 
27 
20 
22 
13 
11 
14 
19 
6 
6 
6 
4 
4 




















18.5 
22.5 
27.0 
31.5 
36.5 
42.0 

54^0 
60.5 
67.0 
74.0 
.81.5 
89.5 
97.5 


















40.0 
46.0 
52.5 
59.5 
67.0 
74.5 
82.5 
91.5 
KIO.O 
109.0 
118.5 
127.5 






57.5 
65.5 
73.5 
82.0 
91.0 
101.0 
111.0 
122.0 
133.0 
144.5 


































1 






. 






2 










246 



Based on taper curves. Stump height, 1 foot; diameter outside bark of top, 4.5 inches. 
Data collected by R. S. Hosmer in Piscataquis County in 1902. 



so 



BrLLETIN 544, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 



Table 39. — Cubic-fool volume of red spruce, virgin and second growth,'- in southern New 

HampsJ ' 



lampshire. 
MEKCHANTABLE VOLUME— (UNPEELED). 



[CUKVED.] 



Diameter 
breast 
high. 




Height of tree— feet. 






Basis. 


40 ; .50 


60 70 


80 


90 


Ail trees. 


Second- 
growth 
trees 
only. 


Volume— cubic feet. 


Inches^. 

8 
9 
iO 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 

90 


3!. 5 
5.0 
6.6 

8.5 


4.2 
6.2 
8.4 
10.8 
13.5 
16.5 
19.5 


3.0 






29 
98 
128 
165 
161 
113 
78 
63 
42 
.55 
56 
49 
38 
44 
30 
21 
18 
16 
10 
5 

2 


29 
98 
127 
163 
155 
103 
64 
37 
22 
29 
23 
18 
10 
9 
6 


5.2 
7.5 
10.0 
12.7 
1.5.6 
18.8 
22.3 
26.0 
.30.0 
34.5 
39.0 
43.5 
48.0 
53.0 


6.4 
9.0 
11.7 
14.8 
18.0 
21.5 
25.4 
29.5 
34.0 
38.5 
43.5 
49.0 
54.5 
60.5 




































34.5 
39.5 
44.0 
49.0 
55.0 
61.0 
67.5 


■■ 
























63.5 
70.0 
77.0 
S3. 5 
90.5 
98.0 
lOS.O 
114.0 
123.0 
131.5 
140.0 
148.5 
















tTT" 

82.0 
89.0 
96.5 
104.5 
112.0 
120.0 
128.0 
135.5 










74.0 












81.5 
88.5 
95.5 
102.0 
109.0 





03 




















25 

26 

28 














































1,226 


893 



' Values within the black lines are a combmation of old-growth and second-giowth measurements which 
worked up separately gave practically identical results. 

Note.— Stumps varying from h foot to !•> feet high and tops above 4 inches outside bark excluded from 
volume. 

Bark=ll per cent of volume given. 
Data collected by Louis -Margolm in 1906. 



THE EED SPKUCE. 



81 



Table 40.- — Cuhk-fool volume oj red spruce in Xew York. 



[curved.] 



Diameter 

brea.st 
high. 


Total height of tree— feet. 


Basis. 


30 


40 


50 


60 70 


* 


90 


100 




Merchantable volume, including bar!. 


—cubic feet. 




Inches . 
6 : 

10 


3.6 

4.8 
6.2 
7.7 
9.5 


4.5 
6.0 

7.8 
9.7 
12.0 
14.4 
17.1 
19.9 
23.0 


5.4 
7.2 
9.3 
11.6 
14.3 
17.2 
20. 5 
23. 5 
27. 5 
31.5 
35. 5 
40.0 
44.5 


6.3 
8.4 
10.9 
13.5 
16.8 
20. 
24.0 
27.5 
32.0 
37.0 
41.5 
47.0 
.52. 
5S.0 
S4.0 
71.0 
77.0 










44 
40 

87 
63 
158 
178 
214 
136 
180 
112 
93 
79 
77 
39 
44 
17 

'I 
6 
1 

1,591 










12.4 
1.5.5 
19.2 
23.0 
27.5 
32.0 
37.0 
42.0 
48.0 
54.0 
60. 
67.0 
74.0 
81. 
89.0 
97.0 
106.0 
114.0 
124.0 














21.5 
26.0 
31.0 
36.0 
11.5 
47.5 
54.0 
61.0 
68.0 
75.0 
83.0 
92.0 
101.0 
110.8 
119.0 
1.30. 
140.0 










12 


34.5 
40.0 
16.0 
53.0 
60.0 
68.0 
76.0 
84.0 
93.0 
102.0 
112.0 
123. 
133.0 
145.0 
150.0 




13 1 




14 I 


51 
58 
66 
74 
83 
92 
102 
113 
123 
135 
146 
159 
172 


i.5 1 


16 




17 




18 




]9 










21 







22 






23 














25 








26 














Stump height, 1 foot; top diameter outside bark, 4.5 inches. Based on taper curves. 
Based in part on measurements taken under the direction of the .Superintendent of State Forests 
York, in Essex and Herkimer Counties, 1912. 



T.VBLE 41. — Cubic-foot volume of red spruce in ]Vest Virginia. 



[curved.] 



Diameter 
breast 
high. 






Height of tree- 


feet. 






Basis. 


50 


60 


70 


80 


90 


100 


110 




Merchantable volur 


ne, includi 


ng bark— c 


ubic feet. 




Inches. 

6. 

7 

i::;;:; 

10 

11 

12 

13 


3.5 
6.0 
S.5 
11.0 
11.0 
17.0 
20.0 








Tms. 








1 
2 
10 
19 
40 
33 
42 
38 
29 
31 
23 
24 
16 
22 
18 
IS 
15 
6 
8 
4 
5 
6 
3 
1 
2 


10.0 
1.3.0 
16.0 
19.5 
23.5 
27.5 
32.0 
36.5 
41.5 














18.5 
22.5 
26.5 
31.0 
36. 
41.5 
47.0 
,52. 5 
68.0 


20.5 
24.5 
29.5 
34.5 
40.0 
4.5. 5 
52.0 
58. 5 
66.0 
73.0 
Sl.O 
88.5 
97.0 











::;::::;:: 




32.5 
38.0 
44.5 
51.0 
58.5 
66.0 
74.0 
82.0 
91.0 
100.0 
110. 
120.0 
130.5 
141.0 
152. 










14 

15 ' 

16 


4S.0 
56.0 
64.0 
72.5 
81.0 
90.0 
100.0 
110.5 
121.5 
132. 5 
144. 
1.56. 5 
169. 
182.0 
19.5. 
209. 
223. 
237. 5 
252. 5 
268. 5 
284. 5 






69.5 
78.5 
88.0 
98.0 
108. 5 
120.0 
132. 
144. 5 
157.5 
171.0 
18.5. 5 
200.5 
216.0 
232.0 
249.0 
265. 5 
283. 
302. 
321.0 






18 1 


19 i 


20 ' 




21 1 




22 1 ... 




23 f 




24 i 






25 '■ 






26 








27 








28 











29 










30 











31 











32 










33 


1 








1 


34 










1 









457 



Based on taper curves. Stum^p height, 1 foot: diameter oi'tside bark of top, 4.5 inches. 
Data collected by John Foley in Greenbrier County in 1903. 

84949°— Bull. 544—17- ^6 



82 



BULLETIN 544^ U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGEICLTLTUEE. 



Table 42. — Cordwood volume of red spruce {old-field) in Neio Hampshire, harlc induded. 

[CURVED.] 



Diameter 
breast 
high. 


Height oftree— feet. 


40 


50 


60 


70 


80 


Volume— cords. 1 


Inches. 
6 
7 
3 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 


0.028 
.048 
.070 
.093 
.115 


0. 032 
.0.58 
.084 
.110 
.137 
.164 
.192 


0.041 
.070 
.099 
.129 
.160 
.190 
.220 
.252 
.284 
.316 
.348 

;4ii 














0.155 
.185 
.217 
.250 
.282 
.315 
.348 
.381 
.414 
.447 














0.314 
.349 
.384 
.419 
.455 
.490 


















.... 











1 Includes bark. 

Top diameter outside b;vrk, 5 inches. Based on 711 trees, measured by T. S. Woolsey, jr., in Grafton 
Countj^m 1911. 
One cord of stacked wood equals 96 cubic feet of solid woo<l and bark. 

Table 43. — Cordwood voliLVie of red spruce {old-field) in New Iluvrpshire, hark included. 



Diameter 
breast high. 


Trees 40 feet high. 


Trees 50 feet high. 


Volume cutting 

10— 


Trees per cord, 
cutting to— 


Volume cutting 

to— 


Trees per cord, 

cutting to— 


6 inches, j 4 inches. 


6 inches. 


4 inches. 


6 inches. 


4 inches. 


6 inches. 


4 inches. 


Iwhcs. 
6 

8 
9 
10 
11 

6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 


Cord. 


Cord. 
0.039 
.060 




25.6 
16.6 


Cord. 


Cord. 

0.045 
.069 
.093 
.120 
.144 
.170 




22.2 
14.6 
10.7 
8.3 
6.9 
5.8 


0.033 


30.3 


0.043 
.071 
.100 
.129 
.159 


23. 2 
14.1 
10.0 

%.'2 





























Trees 60 feet high. 


Trees 70 feet high. 






0.052 
.083 

;i68 

.199 
.2.30 
.263 
.294 




19.2 
12.0 
8.9 
7.2 
5.9 
5.0 
4.3 
3.8 
3.4 










0.0.51 
.088 
.120 
.150 
.179 
.212 
.245 
.279 


19.6 
11.3 
8.3 
6.6 
5.6 
4.7 
4.1 
3.5 



















0.150 
.180 
.211 
.243 

.2m 

.310 


0.162 
.193 
.220 
. 256 
.289 
.322 


6.6 
5.5 
4.7 
4.1 

li 


6.1 
5.2 
4.5 
3.9 
3.5 
3.1 



Basis, 711 trees measured by T. S. Woolsey, jr., in CIrafton County in 1903. 
One cord of stacked wood equals 96 culjic feet of solid wood and bark. 



THE BED SPRUCE. 83 

Table 44. — Cordwood volume of red spruce {old-field) in New Hampshire, bark excluded. 



Diameter 
breast high. 


Trees 40 feet high. 




Trees 50 feet high. 




Volume cutting 
to— 


Trees per cord, 
cutting to— 


Vohime cutting 
to— 


Trees per cord, 
cutting to— 


6 inches. 


i inches. 


6 inches. 


4 iuches. 


6 inches. 


4 incJies. 


6 inclies. 


4 inches. 


Inches. 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 

6 

8 
9 
10 

u 

1.3 
14 


Cord. 


Cord. 
0.032 
.051 




31.2 
19.6 


Cord. 


Cord. 

0.040 
.061 
.081 
.102 
.125 
.1.50 




25.0 
16.4 
12.3 
9.8 
8.0 
6.6 


0.028 


35.7 


0.038 
.065 

.'lis 

.137 


26.3 
15.4 
11.3 
8.8 
7.3 


































Trees tiO feet high. 


Trees 70 feet high. 




0.047 

.074 




21.3 
13.5 
10.0 
8.1 
6.8 
5.7 
5.0 
4.4 










0.040 


21.7 
12.9 
9.2 
7.2 
C.2 
5.3 
4.7 
4.1 













.077 .100 


" 








.108 
.130 
.161 
.180 
.213 
.243 


.123 
.140 
.173 
.199 
.22il 
.255 


0.133 
.162 
.190 
.218 
.247 


6.142 
.171 
.199 
.229 
.258 
.289 


7.5 
6.2 
5.2 
4.5 
4.0 
3.6 


7.0 
5.8 
.5.0 
4.3 
3.8 
3.4 



Basis, 711 trees measured by T. S. Woolsey, jr., in Grafton County in 1903. 
One cord of stacked wood equals 96 cubic feet of solid wood and bark. 



TAPER MEASUREMENTS. 



Changing economic conditions, due to invention, increasing demand, 
and decreasing supply, cause corresponding changes in loggmg prac- 
tice and mill utilization. It is essential that we have some means 
readily available by which volume and other tables may be revised 
or new ones made as these changes take place. Taper tables afford 
such a means by showing for each 10-foot height class and each 1-inch 
diameter class (breastheight diameter measured outside tlie bark), 
the diameter inside the bark at 1-foot intervals from the ground up to 
4.5 feet (breastheight), and at 8.15-foot intervals above a 1-foot 
stmnp height. The allowance of 0.15 of a foot at each 8-foot section 
is for loss in trnnming at the mill. The taper tables (Tables 45 to 49) 
for each of the four States are all for "old-growth" spruce, except 
Table 4(5, which is for "second-growth" or "old-field" spruce. 



84 



BULLETIN 544, U. S. DEPAETMENT OP AGEICULTURE. 



Table 45. — Taper measurements {diameter inside barJ,') of red spruce in Maine. 

40-FOOT TREES. 

[CURVED.] 



Diameter 
breast 
high. 



Indies 

(5 

9.... 
10.... 
11.... 
12.... 

i:! 

14.... 



Height above ground— feet. 



4.5 I 9.15 ! 17.3 25.45 33.6 41.75 49.9 58.05 Oti.2 | 74.35 



Diameter inside baric— inches. 



7.0 
8.1 
9.2 
10.2 
11.3 
12.4 
13.5 
14.6 
15.6 



6.2 
7.3 
8.4 
9.5 
10.6 
11.6 
12.7 
13.7 
14.7 



5.2 
6.0 
6.9 

7.7 
8.5 
9.4 
10.3 
11.2 



50-FOOT TREES. 



(i, 

y 

U). 

11 

12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 



7.6 


7.0 


6.2 


5. 5 


5.2 


4.7 


4.2 


8.8 


8.1 


7.3 


6.4 


6.0 


5.5 


4.9 


9.9 


9.2 


8.4 


7.4 


6.9 


6.3 


5.7 


11.0 


10.2 


9.5 


8.4 


7.8 


7.1 


6.4 


12.2 


11.3 


10.6 


9.3 


8.7 


8.0 


7.1 


13. 3 


12.4 


11.6 


10.3 


9.6 


8.8 


7.9 


14.4 


13.5 


12.7 


11.3 


10.5 


9.6 


8.6 


1.5.6 


14.6 


13.7 


12.2 


11.5 


10. 5 


9.4 


16.7 


1,5.6 


14.7 


13.2 


12.4 


11.1 


10.2 


17.9 


16.7 


1.5.8 


14.1 


13.3 


12.1 


11.0 


19.0 


17.8 


16.8 


15.1 


14.2 


12.8 


11.7 



Trees. 
4 
5 



60-FOOT TREi 



10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15- 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 



12.2 
13. 3 
14.4 
15.6 
16. 7 
17.9 
19.0 
20.3 
21.5 
22.8 
24.1 
25. 3 
2). 6 
27.9 



7.0 
8.1 
9.2 
10.2 
11.3 
12.4 
13.5 
14.6 
15.6 
16.7 
17.8 
19.0 
20.2 



11.3 
12.4 
13.5 
14.6 
15.6 
16.7 
17.8 
19.0 
20.2 
21.3 
22.5 
23. 6 
24.8 
26.0 



6.2 
7.3 
8.4 
9.5 
10.6 
11.6 
12.7 
13.7 
14.7 
1.5.8 
16.8 
17.8 
18.9 



10.6 
11.6 
12.7 
13.7 
14.7 
15.8 



18.9 
20.0 
21.1 
22.2 
23. 3 
24.4 



6.4 
7.4 
8.4 
9.3 
10.3 
11.3 
12.2 
13.2 
14.1 
15.1 
16.0 
17.0 



9.3 
10.3 
11.3 
12.2 
13.2 
14.1 
15.1 
16.0 
17.0 
18.0 
18.9 
19.9 
20.9 
21.9 



5.0 
6.0 
7.0 
7.9 
8.8 
9.8 
10.7 
11.6 
12.5 
13.4 
14.3 
15.1 
16.1 



4.7 
5.6 
6.5 
7.3 
8.1 
9.0 
9.8 
10.6 
11.4 
12.2 
13.0 
13.8 
14.6 



4.4 
5.2 
5.9 
6.7 
7.5 
8.2 
9.0 
9.8 
10.5 
11.3 
12.1 
12.8 
13.5 



3.9 
4.6 
5.1 
5.9 
6.6 
7.2 
8.0 
8.6 
9.3 
10.0 
10.6 
11.3 
12.0 



70-FOOT TREES. 



10.7 
11.5 
12.5 
13.4 
14.3 
15.3 
16.2 

18!o 

IS. 8 
19.8 
20.7 



10.6 
11.5 
12.3 
13.1 
14.0 
14.8 
1.5. 6 
16.4 
17.2 
18.0 
IS. 9 



7.7 
8.4 
9.1 
9.9 
10.6 
11.4 
12.1 
12.9 
13.6 
14.3 
15.0 



7.1 
7.7 
8.4 
9.0 
9.6 
10.4 
11.1 
11.8 
12.4 
13.0 
13.7 
14.3 
15.0 
15.6 



3.0 
3.5 
4.1 
4.7 
5.2 
5.7 
6.2 
6.8 
7.3 
7.8 
8.2 
8.8 



6.0 
6.6 
7.2 
7.8 
8.3 
9.0 
9.5 
10.1 
10.6 
11.2 
11.8 
12.3 
12.9 
13.4 



2.1 

2.5 
2.8 
3.1 
3.5 
3.7 
4.1 
4.4 
4.7 
5.0 
5.3 
5.5 



6.4 
6.8 
7.3 
7.8 
8.2 
8.7 
9.1 



2.6 
2.9 
3.2 
3.5 
3.8 
4,2 
4.5 
4.8 
5.0 
5.4 
5.6 
G.O 
6.3 
6. 6 



THE RED SPRUCE. 



85 



Table 45. — Taper rncusarcmevts (diameter inside barl') of red spruce in Maine — C'ontd. 

SO-FOOT TREES. 

[curved.] 



Height above ground— feet. 



Diameter I 

breast 1 I 2 
high. I 



Indus 
14.... 
15.... 
If..... 
17.... 
IS.... 
19.... 
20.... 
21 ... . 
22.... 
23.... 
24.... 



4.5 I 9.15 17.3 I 25.45 [ 33.6 41.75 



58.05 66.2 74.35 



Diameter inside bark— inches. 



16.7 


15.6 


14.7 


13.2 


12.4 


11.4 


10.6 


9.8 


8.8 


7.4 


.5.6 


3.6 


17.9 


16.7 


15. S 


14.1 


13.4 


12.3 


11.5 


10.6 


9.5 


7.9 


6.1 


3.9 


19.0 


17.8 


16.8 


15. 1 


14.3 


13.1 


12. 2 


11.2 


10.1 


8.5 


6.6 


4.2 


20. 3 


19.0 


17. 8 


16.0 


15.1 


14.0 


13.1 


12.1 


10.8 


9.1 


7.0 


4.5 


21.5 


20.2 


IS. 9 


17.0 


16. 1 


14.8 


13.8 


12.8 


11.5 


9.7 


7.5 


4.8 


■?.?.. S 


21.3 


20. 


18.0 


17.2 


1.5.8 


14.6 


13,5 


12 2 


10 4 


8 


5.1 


24.1 


22.5 


21.1 


18.9 


18.0 


16.6 


15.4 


14.2 


12.9 


11.0 


8.4 


5.4 


2.'i. 3 


23.6 


22. 2 


19.9 


18.9 


17.5 


16.2 


15.0 


13. 5 


11.5 


8.9 


5.8 


•26. tt 


24.8 


2.<. 3 


20.9 


19.9 


IS. 3 


17.0 


l.VV 


14.1 


12.0 


9.3 


6.1 


OT 9 


20.0 


24. 4 


21.9 


20. 8 


19.1 


17.8 


16.4 


14. 8 


12.6 


9 7 


0.4 


29.3 


27.2 


25.5 


22.8 


21.7 


19.9 


18.4 


17.0 


15.4 


13.1 


10.2 


6.7 


30.6 


28.5 


26.6 


23.8 


22.6 


20.7 


19. 2 


17.7 


16.0 


13.7 


10.6 


6.9 



Trce^. 
3 
2 
4 
5 
11 
2 
2 
3 
2 
3 



90-FOOT TREES. 



It-. 






19.0 


17 8 


16.8 


15.1 


14.2 


13.1 


12 1 


11.4 


10.6 


9.5 


8.0 


6.2 


4.1 


17. 






20.3 


19. 


17.8 


16.0 


15.1 


14.0 


13.0 


12.3 


11.4 


10.2 


8.6 


6.5 


4.3 


18. 






21.5 


20. 2 


IS. 9 


17.0 


16.1 


14.9 




13.0 


12.1 


10.8 


9.0 


7.0 


4.6 


19 






22.8 


21,3 


20.0 


18,0 


17.1 


15.8 


14.7 


13,8 


12.7 


11.4 


9.6 


7.4 


4.9 


20. 






24.1 


22. 5 


21.1 


18.9 


18.1 


16.8 


15.6 


14.6 


13.4 


12.0 


10.1 


7.8 


5.1 


21. 






25.3 


2:i6 


22. 2 


19.9 


19.0 


17.7 


16. 5 


1.5. 4 


14.2 


12. 7 


10.6 


8.2 


5.4 


22 






26. 6 


24.8 


23. 3 


20.9 


20.0 


18.7 


17.3 


16.1 


14.9 


13.2 


11.1 


8.6 


5.7 


23 






27.9 


26. 


24.4 


21.9 


21.0 


19.5 


18.2 


17.0 


15.6 


13. 9 


11.8 


9.1 


6.0 


24. 






29.3 


27 2 


25 5 


22, 8 


22, 


20. 5 


19,0 


17.7 


16,3 


14.5 


12,3 


9.4 


6.2 


2.^. 






30.6 


28.5 


26.6 


23.8 


22. 9 


21.4 


19.8 


18.5 


17.1 


15.2 


12.9 


9.9 


6.5 



DatacoUeetod by R. S. Hosmer in Pidcataquis County iu 1902. 



86 



BULLETIN 544, IT, S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 



Table 4G. — Taper me-asuremenis (diameter inside barl) of red spruce {oM-field) in Neio 

Hampshire. 



40-FOOT TREES. 



[CURVKD.] 



Diam- 
eter 
breast 
high. 


Height above ground— feet. 


Basis. 
Trees. 


1 


2 


3 


4.5 


9.15 


17.3 25.45 


33.6 


41.75 


49.9 






Diameter inside bark— inches. 




Inches. 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 


5.6 
6.7 
7.8 
9.0 
10.1 
11.3 
12.4 
13.6 


Ty.Z 
6.3 
7.4 
8.4 
9.5 
10.6 
11.7 
12.8 


5.0 
6.0 
7.0 
8.0 
9.1 
10.1 
11.1 
12.2 


4.7 
5.6 
6.6 

l\ 

9.4 
10.4 
11.4 


4.2 
5.1 
6.0 
6.9 
7.7 
8.6 
9-5 
10.4 


3.6 
4.4 
5.2 
6.0 
6.7 
7.6 
8.3 
9.0 


2.9 
3.5 
4.1 
4.7 
5,3 
5.9 
6.5 
7.0 

































. 






































-^ 



oO-FOOT TiiEES. 



6... 

7... 

8... 

9... 
10... 
11... 
12... 


..! 6.7 
..j 7.8 
.. 9.0 
.. 10.1 
..! 11.3 
..! 12.4 
..13.. 


5.3 
6.3 
7.4 
8.4 
9.5 
10.6 
11.7 
12.8 


5.0 
6.0 
7.0 
8.0 
9.1 
10.1 
11.1 
12.2 


4.7 
5.6 
6.6 
7.5 
8.4 
9.4 
10.4 
11.4 


4.5 
5.4 
6.2 
7.1 
7.9 
8.8 
9.6 
10.5 


4.0 
4.9 
5.6 
6.4 
7.2 
8.0 
8.7 
9.4 


4.2 
4.8 
5.5 
6.2 
6.9 
7.5 
8.2 


2.6 


2 


3.1 


15 


3.6 ■ 


23 
9 


4.6 


5.1 


5.6 j i 


6.0 . . j .. . 


2 
71 





-FOOT TREES. 



7 


7 8 


7.4 


7.0 


6.6 


6.2' 5.6 


5.1 


4.3 


3.2 


2 


8 


9.0 


8.4 


8.0 


7.5 


7.1 


6.5 


5.8 


4.9 


3.7 


5 


9 


10,1 


9.5 


9.1 


H.4 


8.0 


7.4 


6.6 


5.6 


4.2 


3 


10 


11.3 


10.6 


10.1 


9.4 


8.9 


8.2 


7.4 


6.2 


4.7 


2 


11 


12.4 


11 7 


11.1 


10.4 


9.8 


«.() 


H. 1 


6.8 


5.2 


1 3 


12 


13.6 


12.8 


12.2 


11.4 


10.7 


9.S 


«.H 


7.5 


o.y 


3 


13 


14.8 


13.9 


13. 2 


12.4 


11.6 


10.6 


9.6 


8.1 


6.1 


1 


14 


16.0 


15.0 


14.3 


13.4 


12.5 


11.4 


10. 3 


8.7 


6.6 


! 1 


15 

16 


17.3 
18.6 


16.2 
17.3 


15.4 
16.5 


14 4 


13 4 


12 2 


11 


9 3 


7.1 




15.4 


14.2 


13.0 


11.7 


10.0 


7.6 




1 


21 



70-FOOT TREES 



8 


,0 


8.4 


8,0 


7.5 


7.1 


6. 6 6. 1 


5.4 


4.4 


3.1 




9 


10.1 


9.5 


9.1 


8.4 


8.0 


7.5 


6.9 


6.0 


4.9 


3.5 




10 


11.3 


10. 6 


10 1 


9.4 


9.0 


8.4 


7.7 


6.8 


5.5 


3.9 




11 


1-^ 4 


11.7 


11.1 


10.4 


9.9 


9.2 


8.5 


7.4 


6.0 


4.3 




12 


13,6 


12.8 


12.2 


11.4 


10.8 


10.0 


9.2 


8.0 


6.6 


4.V 


1 


13 


14.8 


13.9 


13.2 


12.4 


11.8 


10.9 


9.9 


8.7 


7.1 


5. 1 




14 


16.0 


15.0 


14.3 


13.4 


12.7 


11. V 


10.7 


9.4 


7.6 


b.b 




15 


17.3 


16.2 


l.i.4 


14.4 


13.7 


12.6 


11.5 


10.0 


8.1 


5.8 


1 


16 


18.6 


17.3 


16. 5 


15.4 


14.6 


13. 5 


12.3 


10.7 


8.7 


6.2 




17 


19.8 


18. 5 


17.6 


16.4 


1.5.5 


14.3 


13.0 


11.4 


9.2 


6.5 






21.1 


19.6 


18.8 


17.4 


16.4 


15.1 


13.8 


12.1 


9.8 


6.9 


3 



Data collected by T. S. Woolsey, jr.,in Grafton County in 1903. 



THE BED SPRUCE. 



87 



Table 47. — Taper vuasurements {diameter inside baric) of red spruce {old-growth) in New 

Hampshire. 



30-FOOT TREES. 



[CURVED.] 



Diameter 

breast 
high. 


Height above ground— feet. 


1 
Basis. 


1 


2 


3 


4.5 


9.15 


17.3 


25.45 


33.6 


41.75 


49.9 


58.05 


66.2 


Diameter inside bark— inches. 


Inches. 

6 

7 

S 

9 

10 

11 

12 


6.5 
7.7 
8.8 
9.9 
11.1 
12.3 
13.4 


6.0 
7.1 
8.2 
9.3 
10.4 
11.5 
12.6 


5.7 
6.7 
7.8 
8.8 
9.9 
11.0 
12.1 


i 5 
6.5 
7.5 
8.4 

io!4 

11.4 


4.8 
5.7 
6.6 

9.3 
10.3 


4.4 
5.0 

5.7 
6.4 

I'.S 
8.5 


2.5 
2.8 
3.2 
3.5 
.3.9 
4.2 
4.6 






1 


Ttccs. 
3 
2 
2 






I 1 






1 ! 






" " "1 ■" i 






1 








i 1 









i 1 






















7 



40-FOOT TREES. 



6 


6.5 

7.7 
8.8 
9.9 

12^3 
13.4 
14.6 
15. 7 
16.9 
l.S.O 
19.1 
20.3 


6.0 
7.1 
8.2 
9.3 
10.4 
11.5 
12.6 
13.7 
14. S 
15.9 
17.0 
18.1 
19.1 


5.7 
6.7 

1:1 

9.9 
11 
12.1 
13.1 
14.2 
15.3 
16.3 
17.3 
18.4 


5.5 
6.5 
7.5 
8.4 
9.4 
10.4 
11.4 
12.4 
13.3 
14.3 
15.3 
16.3 
17.2 


5.2 

0.1 
6.9 
7.7 
8.6 
9.4 
10.3 

12^0 
12.8 
13.6 
14.5 
15.3 


4.7 
5.4 
6.1 
6.8 
7.6 
8.3 
9.0 
9.7 
10.5 
11.2 
12.0 
12.7 
13.4 


3.7 
4.4 
5.1 
5.7 
0.4 
7.0 
7.7 
8.3 
9.0 
9.6 

lU 

11.6 


2.0 
2.4 
2.8 
3.2 
3.7 
4.1 
4.6 
5.0 
5.4 
5.9 




I ! 


14 
23 
39 
24 
16 

2 

2 
...... 




1 






1 






1 


















■■;: T ■":: 
































6.8 
7.2 










1 




















122 



50-FOOT TREES. 



9 

10 

11 

II:::::::: 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 


6.5 
7.7 
8.8 
9.9 
11.1 
12.3 
13.4 
14. 6 
15.7 
16.9 
18.0 
19.1 
20.3 
21.3 
22.4 
23.5 
24.6 


6.0 
7.1 
8.2 
9.3 
10.4 
11.5 
12.6 
13.7 
14.8 
15.9 
17.0 
18.1 
19.1 
20.2 
21.3 
22.4 
23.4 


5.7 
6.7 
7.8 
8.8 
9.9 
11.0 
12.1 
13.1 
14.2 
15.3 
16.3 
17.3 
18.4 
19.4 
20.4 
21.4 
22.4 


5.5 

6.5 
7.5 
8.4 
9.4 
10.4 
11.4 
12.4 
13.3 
14.3 
1.5.3 
16.3 
17.2 
18.2 
19.2 
20.1 
21.1 


5.4 
6.2 
7.1 
7.9 
8.8 
9.6 
10.5 
11.3 
12.2 
13.0 
13.9 
14.7 
15.5 
16.3 
17.1 
18.0 
18.8 


4.9 
5.6 
6.4 
7.2 
8.0 
8.7 
9.4 
10.1 
10.9 
11.7 
12.4 
13.2 
13.9 
14.6 
15.3 
16.0 
16.8 


4.6 
5.1 
5.8 
6.4 
7.1 
7.8 
8.4 
9.1 
9.7 
10.4 

n.? 

12.3 
13.0 
13.6 
14.3 
14.9 


4.1 

4.5 
5.0 
5.5 
6.0 
6.4 
6.9 
7.4 
7.8 
8.3 
8.8 
9.3 
9.8 
10.3 
10.8 
11.2 
11.7 


2.8 
3.1 
3.4 
3.6 
3.9 
4.1 
4.4 
4.6 
4.8 
5.0 
5.2 
5.5 
5.7 
6.0 
6.2 
6.4 
6.7 








3 
10 
29 
34 
41 
29 
14 
13 
6 
1 
2 
I 


























































































1 
















184 



88 



BULLETIN M4, V. S. DEPARTMEISTT OF AC4EICULT1TEE. 



Table 47. — Taper measurements (diamter inside bari) of red spruce (old-grotvth) in New 

Hampshire. 



CO-FOOT TREES. 



Diameter 
breast 
high. 






Height 


above ground— feet. 




Basi.s. 


1 


2 


3 


4.5 


9.15 


17.3 


25.45 


33.6 


41.75 


43.9 


53.05 


66.2 






Biamete 


r inside bark— inches. 




Inches. 



7 

1:::::;:: 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

lli 

17 

IS 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

2i> 


fi.o 
7.7 
8.8 
9.9 
11.1 
12.3 
13.4 
14.6 
1.5.7 
l(i. 9 
18.0 
19.1 
20. 3 
21.3 
22.4 
23.5 
24.6 
25.7 
26.8 
27.8 
28.9 


6.0 
7.1 
8.2 
9.3 
10.4 
11.5 
12.6 
13.7 
14.8 
15. 9 
17.0 
18.1 
10. 1 
20. 2 
21.3 
22.4 
23.4 
24.4 
25. 5 
2(i. 5 
27.5 


5.7 
6.7 
7.8 
8.8 
9.9 
11.0 
12.1 
13.1 
14.2 
15.3 
16. 3 
17.3 
18.4 
19.4 
20.4 
21.4 
22.4 
23. 3 
24.3 
25. 3 
26. 2 


5.5 
6.5 
7.5 
8.4 
9.4 
10.4 
11.4 
12.4 
13.4 
14.3 
15.3 
16.3 
17.2 
18.2 
19.2 
20.1 
21.1 
22.1 
23.1 
24.0 
25.0 


5.4 
6.2 
7.1 
8.0 
8.9 
9.8 
10.7 
11.5 
12.4 
13.2 
14.0 
14.8 
15.7 
16.5 
17.4 
18.2 
19.1 
19.8 
20.6 
21.5 
22.3 


5.1 

5.9 
6.6 
7.4 
8.2 
8.9 
9.7 
10.5 
11.2 
12.0 
12.7 
13.5 
14.3 
1.5.0 
1.5.8 
16.5 
17.2 
IS.O 
18.7 
19.4 
20.1 


4.9 
5.5 
6.2 
6.8 
7.5 
8.2 
8.9 
9.6 
10.3 
10.9 
11.6 
12.3 
13.0 
13.7 
14.4 
1.5.0 
1.5.7 
16.3 
17.0 
17. 6 
18.3 


4..5 
5.0 
5.6 
6.1 
6.7 
7.3 
7.9 
8.4 
9.0 
9.6 
10.2 
10.8 
11.4 
11.9 
12.5 
13.0 
13.6 
14.1 
14.6 
15. 1 
1.5.7 


3.8 
4.2 
4.6 
5.1 
5.5 
5.9 
6.4 
6.8 
7.3 
7.7 
8.2 
8.7 
9.2 
9.G 
10.0 
10.4 
10.8 
11.2 
11.6 
12.0 
12.4 


2.6 
2.9 
3.2 

3.5 
3.8 
4.1 
4.4 
4.6 
4.9 
5.2 
6.5 
5.8 
6.1 
6.4 
6.7 
6.9 
7.2 
7.4 
7.7 
7.9 
8.2 




Trees. 
1 




1 










1 


29 




11 


1 


47 


i 


27 




37 


1 


15 




17 




9 




-1 








1 


t 








< 






1 






256 



70-FOOT TREES. 



8 

9 


8.8 
9.9 


8.2 
9.3 


7.8 
8.8 


7.5 

8.4 


7.2 

8.1 


6.8 
7.5 


6.4 
7.1 


.5.9 
6.5 


5.1 
5.6 


4.1 
4.5 


2.9 




3.2 


1 


10 




10.4 


9,9 


9.4 


9.0 


8,3 


7.8 


7.1 


6.1 


4.9 


3.4 t 




11 


12.3 


11.5 


11.0 


10.4 


9.8 


9.1 


8.5 


7.7 


6.7 


5. 3 


3.6 


4 


12 


13.4 


12.6 


12.1 


11.4 


10.7 


9.8 


9.2 


8.4 


7.3 


5.8 


3.9 1 


23 




14.6 
1.5.7 


13.7 
14.8 


13.1 
14.2 


12.4 
13.3 


11.5 
12.4 


10.6 
11.4 


9.9 
10.6 


9.0 
9.7 


v. 8 
8.4 


6.2 
6.6 


4.2 

4.4 


13 

22 


14 


15 


It;. 9 


15.9 


15. 3 


14.3 


13. 2 


12.2 


11.3 


10.3 


8.9 


7.0 


4.7 


15 


16 


IS.O 


17.0 


16.3 


1.5.3 


14.1 


13.0 


12.1 


11.0 


9.5 


7.5 


4.9 , 


15 


17 


19.1 


18.1 


17.3 


16. 3 


1.5.0 


13.8 


12. S 


11.6 


10.1 


7.9 


6.1 


8 


IS 


20.3 


19.1 


IS 4 


17.2 


15.9 


14.5 


13. 6 


12.3 


10.7 


8.4 


5.4 


9 


19 


21.3 


20.2 


19.4 


IS. 2 


16.7 


15.3 


14.3 


12.9 


11.2 


8.8 


5.6 


8 


2!) 


TO. 4 


21.3 


20.4 


19.2 


17.6 


16.0 


1,5.0 


13. 5 


11.7 


9.2 


5.9 1 


3 


21 


23.5 


22.4 


21.4 


20.1 


IS. 4 


16. K 


15 7 


14.1 


1?.3 


9.6 


6.1 1 




22 


24.6 


23.4 


22.4 


21.1 


19.3 


17.6 


16.4 


14.8 


12.8 


10. 


6.4 1 


1 


23 .. 


25.7 


24.4 


23.3 


22.1 


20.2 


18.4 


17.1 


1.5. 4 


13.4 


10. 5 


6.7 1 




24 


26.8 


2.5.5 


24.3 


23. 1 


21.0 


19.1 


17.8 


16. 


13.9 


10.9 


7. ' 




25 


27.8 


26. 5 


25. 3 


24.0 


21 9 


19,9 


IS. 4 


16.7 


14.5 


11.3 


7.3 














22.7 






17.3 




11.7 


7.6 




























123 



80-FOOT TREES. 



10 1 11.1 

11 12.3 

12 13.4 

13 14. 6 

14 15.7 

15 1 16.9 

16 i 18.0 

17 1 19. 1 

18 20.3 

19 21.3 

20 ■ 22.4 

21 : 23. 5 

22 24.6 

23 25.7 

24 26. 8 

25 27.8 

2':. ' 28.9 



10.4 


9.9 


9.4 


9.0 


8.4 


7.8 


7.2 


6.4 


,5.4 


4.4 


2.9 




11.5 


11.0 


10.4 


9.8 


9.1 


8.5 


7.9 


7.0 


5.9 


4.8 


3.2 




12. 6 


12.1 


11.4 


10.7 


9.9 


9.3 


8.6 


7.6 


6.4 


.5.2 


3.5 


1 


13.7 


13.1 


12.4 


11.6 


10.7 


10.0 


9.3 


8.3 


7.0 


.5.6 


3.8 


1 


14.8 


14.2 


13.3 


12.5 


11.5 


10. 8 


10.0 


8.9 


7.6 


6.0 


4.1 


2 


15. 9 


1.5.3 


14.3 


13, 3 


12.3 


11.5 


10.7 


9.5 


8.1 


6.4 


4.3 


2 


17.0 


16.3 


1.5.3 


14.2 


13.1 


12.3 


11.4 


10. 2 


8.6 


6.8 


4.6 


2 


18.1 


17.3 


16.3 


1.5.1 


13.9 


13.0 


12.1 


10.8 


9.1 


7.2 


4.9 


5 


19.1 


18.4 


17.2 


16.0 


14.7 


13.8 


12.8 


11.5 


9.6 


7.6 


6.2 


8 


20.2 


19.4 


18.2 


16.9 


1,5.5 


14.6 


13.5 


12.1 


1(». 1 


8.0 


5.4 


4 


21.3 


20.4 


19.2 


17.8 


16. 3 


1,5.3 


14.2 


12.7 


10.6 


8.4 


5.6 


2 


22.4 


21.4 


20.1 


18.6 


17.1 


16.1 


14.9 


13.3 


11.1 


8.7 


.5.8 


2 


23.4 


22.4 


21.1 


19.5 


17.9 


16.8 


15. 6 


13.9 


11.7 


9.1 


6.1 


2 


24.4 


23, 3 


22.1 


20. 3 


IS. 7 


17.6 


16.3 


14. .5 


12.3 


9.5 


6.4 




25.5 


24.3 


23.1 


21.2 


19.5 


IS. 4 


16.9 


1.5.1 




9.9 


6.6 




26. 5 


25. 3 


24.0 


22.1 


20.3 


19.1 


17.6 


15. 7 


13. 3 


10. 3 


6.8 




27.5 


26. 2 


25.0 


23.0 


21.2 


19.9 


18.3 


10.3 


13.9 


10.7 


7.0 


2 
33 



Data collected by T. S. Woolsoy, jr., in Grafton County in 1903. 



THE RED SPRUCE. 



89 



Table 48. — Tapa mraswemcntft {diameUr inside bark) of red spruce in Xetr J'ork. 

30-FOOT TREES. [CURVED.] 



Diam- 
eter 
breast 
liigh. 


Height above ground— feet. 


■ J ' 


3 


4.0 


9.15 


17.3 


25.45 33.6 41.75 49.9 


58.05 


66.2 1 74.35 


82.5 


1 
Basis. 


Diameter inside bark— inches. 


Inches. 
6... 
7... 
8... 
9... 
10... 


7.6 
8.6 
9.6 
10.7 
11.7 


7.0 
7.9 

8.8 
9.8 
10.8 


6.3 
7.3 
8.2 
9.2 
10.2 


5.6 
6.6 
7.5 
8.4 
9.4 


5.4 
6.3 
7.2 
8.1 
9.0 


4.4 
5.2 
6.0 
6.8 

7.5 








1 








Trees. 
3 

1 
1 


















































































5 



40-FOOT TREES. 



6... 

S.'.'. 

9... 
10... 
11... 
12... 
13... 
14... 


7.6 
8.6 
9.6 
10.7 
11.7 
12.8 
1.3.9 
15. 1 
16.2 


5:§ 
1:1 

10.8 
11.9 
1.3.0 
14.1 
15.2 


6.3 
7.3 

1:1 

10.2 
11.2 
12.3 
13.3 
14.4 


5.6 
6.6 
7.5 
8.4 
9.4 
10.3 
11.3 
12.2 
13.2 


5.4 
0.3 
7.2 
8.1 
9.0 
9.8 
10. 6 
11.5 
12.4 


4.8 
5.6 
6.3 
7.1 
7.9 
8.6 
9.4 
10.1 
10.9 


3.8 
4.5 
5.1 

5.8 
6.4 
7.0 
7.6 
8.2 
8.8 






1 1 1 ' 35 












::::::f:;::::;:::;:;:::: 27 












i t 1 1 9 






1 1. 2 






1 1 1 1 i 








III 










\ 










i 106 

1 1 



50-FOOT TREES. 



6... 


7.6 


7.0 


6.3 


5.6 


5.4 


5.1 


4.., 


3.5 


7. 


8.6 


7.9 


7.3 


6.6 


6.3 


5.8 


5.2 


4.1 


8... 


9.6 


8.8 


8.2 


7.5 


7.2 


6.6 


5.8 


4.6 


9... 


10.7 


9.S 


9.2 


8.4 


8.1 


7.4 


6.5 


5.1 


i 10... 


11.7 


10.8 


10. 2 


9.4 


8.9 


8.2 


7.1 


5.6 


' 11... 


12. H 


11.9 


11.2 


10.3 


9.8 


8.9 


7.8 


6.2 


12... 


13.9 


13.0 


12.3 


11.3 


10.6 


9.6 


8.5 


6.6 


13... 


1.5.1 


14.1 


13.3 


12.2 


11.5 


10.4 


9.1 




14... 


16.2 


15.2 


14.4 


13.2 


12.3 


11 1 


9.6 


7.6 


15... 


IV. 4 


16.4 


1.5.5 


14.2 


13. 1 


11.8 


10.3 


8.1 


16... 


18.7 


17.5 


16.6 


15.1 


13.9 


12.5 


10.9 


8.6 


17... 


20.0 


IS. 7 


17. 6 


10.0 


14.8 


1.3.2 


11.5 


9.1 


18... 


21.3 


19.8 


18.7 


17.0 


15.6 


13.9 


12.1 


9.0 



00-FOOT TREES. 



!■: 

10... 

11... 

12... 
13... 

14... 
15... 
16... 

18.'.'. 
19... 
20... 
21... 
22... 


7.6 
8.6 
9.6 
10.7 
11.7 
12.8 
13.9 
15.1 
16.2 
17.4 
18.7 
20.0 
21.3 
22.7 
24.1 
25. 5 
26.9 


7.0 
7.9 
8.8 
9.8 
10.8 
11.9 
1.3.0 
14.1 
15.2 
16.4 
17.5 
18.7 
19.8 
21.0 
22.3 
23.5 
24.8 


6.3 
7.3 
8.2 
9.2 
10.2 
11.2 
12.3 
1.3.3 
14.4 
1.5. 5 
16. 6 

1817 
19.8 
20.9 
22.0 
23.1 


.5.6 
6.6 
7.5 
8.4 
9.4 
10.3 
11.3 
12.2 
1.3.2 
14.2 
15. 1 
10. 
17.0 
18.0 
18.9 
19.8 
20.8 


5.5 
6.4 
7.2 
8.1 
8.9 
9.8 
10.6 
11.5 
12.3 
1.3.1 
13.9 
14.7 
15.4 
16.3 
17.0 
17.8 
18.5 


5.2 
6.0 
6.8 
7.6 
8.4 
9.1 
9.9 
10.0 
11.4 
12.1 
12.7 
13.4 
14.1 
14.8 
1.5. 5 
16.1 
16.8 


4.7 
5.5 
6.2 
7.0 
7.6 
8.3 
9.0 
9.7 
10.3 
11.0 
11.0 
12.3 
12.9 
1.3.6 
14.2 
14.8 
15.3 


4.1 
4.8 
5.4 
6.0 
6.6 
7.2 
7.8 
8.4 
9.0 
9.6 
10.1 
10.7 
11.3 
11.9 
12.5 
13.0 
13.5 


3.1 
3.7 
4.2 
4.7 
5.2 
5.7 
6.2 
6.7 
7.1 
7.7 
8.1 
8.7 
9.1 
9.6 
10.2 
10.7 
11.2 


1.8 
2.1 
2 5 






1 






t 






10 


2.9 
3.2 
3.6 
3.9 
4.3 
4.7 
5.1 
5.4 
5.8 
6.2 
6.6 
7.0 
7.4 
7.8 






10 






55 










1 






1 


i 44 




1 


1 56 












14 




1 


















1 


1 








1 








1 








420 



90 



BULLETIN 544^ U. S. PEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 



Table 48 . — Taper measuremenU (diameter inside barl) of red spruee in Neu' York — Contd . 
70-rOOT TREES. 



Diam- 
eter 


Height above ground— Feet. 




1 


2 


3 


4.5 


9.15 


17.3 


25.45 


33.6 


41.75 


49.9 


58.05 


66.2 






Basis. 


high. 


























































Diameter inside bark- 


-Inches. 






Inches. 






























Trees. 


8... 


9.6 


8.8 


8.2 


7. 5 


7.3 


6.9 


6. .5 


.5.9 


5. 1 


4.1 


2.7 






! 


9... 


10.7 


9.8 


9.2 


8.4 


8.1 


7.7 


7.2 


6.6 


5.6 


4.5 


3.0 










10... 


11.7 


10. S 


10.2 


9.4 


9.0 


8.5 


8.0 


7.2 


6.2 


5.0 


3.3 








13 


11.. . 


12.8 


11.9 


11.2 


10.3 


9.8 


9.2 


8.6 


7.9 


6.8 


5.5 


3.6 








32 


12... 


18.9 


13.0 


12.3 


11.3 


10.7 


10.0 


9.4 


8.5 


7.4 


5.9 


3.9 









66 


13... 


15. 1 


14.1 


13.3 


12.2 


11.5 


10.7 


10.1 


9.2 


7.9 


6.4 


4.2 








66 


14. .. 


16.2 


15.2 


14.4 


13.2 


12.3 


11.5 


10.8 


9.8 


8.5 


6.8 


4.6 








81 


15.. . 




16.4 


15.5 


14.2 


13, 2 


12.2 


11.5 


10.4 


9.1 


7.3 


4.9 








44 


16... 


18.7 


17.5 


16.6 


15.1 


13.9 


13. 


12.2 


11.1 


9.6 


7.8 


5.2 








35 


17... 


20. 


18.7 


17.6 


16.0 


14.8 


13.7 


12.9 


11.7 


10.2 


8.3 


.5.6 








22 


18. . . 


21. .3 


19.8 


18.7 


17.0 


1.5. 5 


14.5 


13.6 


12.4 


10.8 


8.7 


5.8 








12 


19... 


22.7 


21.0 


19.8 


18.0 


16. 3 


15.2 


14.3 


13.1 


11.4 


9.2 


6.2 








8 


20... 


24.1 


22. 3 


20.9 


18.9 


IV 


16.0 


1.5.0 


13.7 


11.9 


9.7 


6.6 








4 


21... 


9'^r, 


■^X. 5 


m. 


19.8 


17.8 


16.7 


1.5,7 


14 3 


12,4 


10,1 


7.0 








1 


22... 


26.9 


24.8 


23.1 


20. 8 


18.5 


17.4 


16.4 


1.5.0 


13.0 


10.6 


7.3 










23... 


W4 


26. 


24.2 


21.7 


19.3 


18.1 


17.1 


15. 6 


13,6 


11.1 


7.6 










24. .. 


W,8 


27. 3 


25. 4 


22. 7 


20. 


18.9 


17.7 


16.3 


14.2 


11.5 


7.9 








1 


2.5.. . 


31.2 


28. 6 


26. 6 


23. 6 


20.8 


19.6 


18.5 


17. 


14.8 


12.0 


8.3 











26... 


32.7 


2<i.9 


27.8 


24.6 


21.5 


20.3 


19.2 


17.6 


15.3 


12.4 


8.0 










384 



80-FOOT TREES. 



10... 


11.7 


10.8 


10.2 


9.4 


9.0 


8.0 


8.0 


7.4 


6.7 


5.8 


4.7 


3.3 








11... 


12.8 


11.9 


11.2 


10.3 


9.8 


9.3 


8.8 


8.1 


7.3 


6.3 


.5.1 


3.6 






2 


12... 


13.9 


13.0 


12.3 


11.3 


10.7 


10.1 


9.5 


8.8 


7.9 


6.9 


.5.6 


3.9 






16 


13... 


1,5.1 


14.1 


13. 3 


12.2 


U. 5 


10.8 


10.3 


9.6 


8.6 


7.4 


6.0 


4.2 







15 


14... 


16.2 


1.5.2 


14.4 


13.2 


12.3 


11.6 


11.0 


10.3 


9.2 


8.0 


6.5 


4.5 






32 


15... 


17.4 


16. 4 




14.2 


13, 2 


12.3 


11.8 


11.0 


9,8 


8,5 


6.9 


4.8 






42 


16... 


18.7 


17.5 


16.6 


15.1 


13.9 


13.2 


12.5 


11.7 


10. 5 


9.1 


7.3 


5.2 






41 


17... 


20. 


18.7 


17.6 


16.0 


14.7 


13.9 


13. 3 


12.4 


11.1 


9.6 


7.8 


5.4 






38 


18... 


21,3 


19.8 


18.7 


17,0 


15,5 


14.7 


13,9 


13,1 


11.8 


10.2 


8.2 


5.7 






43 


19... 


22.7 


21.0 


19.8 


18.0 


16. 3 


1,5. 4 


14.8 


13.8 


12.4 


10.7 


8.6 


6.0 






14 


20... 


24.1 


22. 3 


20.9 


18.9 


17.1 


16.2 


1,5. 4 


14. 5 


13.1 


11.3 


9.1 


6.3 






29 


21... 


25. 5 


23. 5 


22. 


19.8 


17.9 


17.0 


16,2 


1.5.2 


13.7 


11.8 


9.5 


6.7 






11 


22... 


26.9 


24.8 


23. 1 


20. 8 


18.7 


17.8 


16.9 


1.5.9 


14.4 


12.4 


10.0 


7.0 






3 


23... 


28.4 


26. 


24,2 


21.7 


19.4 


18.5 


17 7 


16.6 


15.1 


13.0 


10. 5 


7.3 






3 


24... 


29.8 




25. 4 


22.7 


20. 3 


19.3 


18.4 


17.2 


1.5.7 


13.6 


10.9 


7.6 






4 


25... 


31 2 


28,6 


26.6 


23.6 


21.1 


20. 1 


19,1 


17.9 


16.4 


14.2 


11.4 


7,9 








26... 




29.9 


27.8 


24.6 


21.9 


20.9 


19.9 


18.7 


17.0 


14.7 


11.8 


" 








293 



THE EED SPEUCE. 



91 



Table 48. — Taper measurements (diameter inside bark) o/redsprucein New York — Contd. 
90-FOOT TREES. 



Diam- 
etei 




Height above ground— Feet. 








1 


2 


3 


4.5 


9.15 


17.3 


25.45 3-3.6 


41.75 


49.9 


58.05 


6G.2 


74.35 


82.5 


Basis. 


lugh. 














' 






























Diameter inside bark— Inches. 








Inches. 




























Trees. 


12... 
13... 


13.9 
15.1 


13.0 
14.1 


12.3 
13. 3 


11.3 
12.2 


10. 7 
11.5 


10.1 
10. 9 


9.6 
10. 4 


9.0 
9.8 


8.2 
8.9 


7.3 

7.9 


6.2 

6.8 


4.9 
5.4 


3.4 

3.7 








1 


14... 


16.2 


15.2 


14.4 


13.2 


12.3 


11.7 


11.2 


10.5 


9.6 


8.5 


7.3 


5.8 


4.1 




3 


lo. . . 


17.4 


16.4 


15.5 


14.2 


13.2 


12.5 


12.0 


11.3 


10.3 


9.2 


7.9 


6.3 


4.4 




1 


16... 


18.7 


17.5 


16.6 


1.5.1 


14.0 


13. 3 


12.7 


12.0 


10.9 


9.8 


8.5 


6.8 


4.8 




3 


17... 


20.0 


18.7 


17.6 


16.0 


14.8 


14.1 


13.6 


12.7 


11.6 


10,4 


9.0 


7.2 


5.1 




11 


18... 


21.. 3 


19.8 


18.7 


17.0 


1.5.6 


14.9 


14.3 


13.5 


12.4 


11.1 


9.6 


7.7 


.5.4 




16 


19... 


22.7 


21.0 


19.8 


18.0 


16. 5 


1.5.7 


1.5. 1 


14.2 


13.1 


11.7 


10.1 


8.1 


5.7 




15 


20... 


24.1 


22.3 


20.9 


18.9 


17.2 


16.5 


15.8 


14.9 


13.7 


12.3 


10.6 


H.5 


6.0 




8 


21... 


2.5. .5 


23. 5 


22.0 


19.8 


18.0 


17.3 


16.6 


15.6 


14.4 


12.9 


11.2 


9.0 


6.4 




5 


22... 


26.9 


24. 8 


23. 1 


20. 8 


18.8 


18.2 


17.3 


16.3 


1.5.1 


13.6 


11.7 


9 4 


6.7 




13 


23... 


28.4 


26.0 


24. 2 


21.7 


19.7 


18.9 


18.1 


17.1 


15.9 


14.2 


12.3 


9.9 


7.0 




2 


24... 


29. H 


27.3 


25. 4 


22.7 


20. 5 


19.8 


18.9 


17.8 


16. 5 


14.8 


12.8 


10.4 


7.4 




1 


25. . . 
26... 


31.2 
32.7 


28.6 
29.9 


26.6 
27.8 


23.6 
24.6 


21.4 
22.2 


20. 5 
21.4 


19. V 
20.4 


18.6 
19.3 


17.2 
18.0 


1.5.5 
16.1 


13.4 
13.9 


10. S 
11.3 


7.7 
8.0 














79 



lOO-FOOT TREES. 



1!... 


16.2 


15.2 


14.4 


1.3.2 


12.3 


11.8 


11.3 


10.7 


9.8 


S.7 


7.6 


6.3 


4.8 


3, .3 




15... 


17.4 


16.4 


1.5.5 


14.2 


13.1 


12.6 


12.1 


11.4 


10.4 


9.4 


8.2 


6.9 


5.3 






16... 


IS. 7 


17.5 


16.6 


15. 1 


13.9 


13.4 


12.8 


12.2 


11.2 


10.1 


8.8 


7.4 


5.8 


4.1 






20. 


18.7 


17.6 


16.0 


14.7 


14.2 


13.6 


12. S 


11.9 


10.8 


9.5 


8.0 


6.3 


4.4 


1 


IS... 


21.3 


19.8 


18.7 


17.0 


1.5.5 


1.5.0 


14.3 


13.6 


12.7 


11.5 


10.3 


8.6 


6.8 


4.7 


2 


19... 


22. 7 


21.0 


19.8 


18.0 


16.4 


15.8 


1.5.1 


14.4 


13.4 


12.2 


10.9 


9.2 


7.3 


.5.1 


1 


20... 


24.1 


22. 3 


20.9 


18.9 


17.2 


16.6 


15.9 


1,5.1 


14.1 


12.9 


11.5 


9.8 


7,8 


5,6 


2 


21... 


25. 5 


23. 5 


22.0 


19.8 


18.1 


17.4 


16.7 


15.9 


14.8 


13.6 


12.2 


10.4 


8.3 


.5.9 




22... 


26. 9 


24.8 


2.3.1 


20.8 


19.0 


18.3 


17.5 


16.7 


1.5.6 


14.3 


12.8 


10.9 


8.8 


6.3 




23... 


28.4 


26. 


24. 2 


21.7 


19.9 


19.1 


18.3 


17.4 


16.3 


1.5.0 


13, 5 


11.6 


9,3 


6,7 


1 


24... 


29.8 


27. 3 


2.5.4 


22.7 


20.8 


20.0 


19.1 


18.2 


17.1 


1.5.8 


14.2 


12.2 


9.8 


7.1 




25... 


31.2 


28.6 


26.6 


2;^.6 


21.7 


20. 8 


19.9 


18.9 


17. S 


16.4 


14.9 


12.9 


10.4 


7.5 


1 


26... 


32.7 


29.9 


27.8 


24.6 


22.6 


21.6 


20.7 


19.7 


18.5 


17.2 


15.6 


13.4 


10.8 


7.9 


1 
10 



Data calleeted in part under the supervision of the Superintendent of State Forests in Essex and Her- 
kimer Counties in 1912. 



92 



BULLETIN 544, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 



Table 49.— Taper measurements {diameter inside bark) of red spruce in West Virginia. 
50-FOOT TREES. 

[CURVED.l 



Diameter 
breast 
high. 


Height above ground— Feet. 


Basis. 
Trees. 


1 


2 


3 


4.5 


9.15 


17.3 25.45 33.6 41. 75 49.9 158.05 66.2 

1 1 ' 


74. 35' 82. 5 


90.95 98.8 


Diameter inside bark— Inches. 


Inches. 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 


7.1 
8.1 
9.2 
10.2 
11.2 
12.2 
13.3 


u 

10.5 
.11.5 
12.6 


6.2 
7.1 
8.1 
9.1 
10.1 
11.1 
12.1 


5.7 
6.7 
7.7 
8.6 
9.6 
10.5 
11.5 


5.3 
6.2 
7.1 

8.0 
8.9 
9.9 
10.8 


4.8 
5.6 
6.4 
7.2 
8.0 
8.9 
9.6 


4.3 
5.0 
5.7 
6.3 

7.0 

s!4 


3.6 
4.1 

4.7 
5 3 


































1 
2 
7 
1 
2 


































5.8 
6.4 


. 










































' 1 
























13 



60-FOOT TREF.S. 



8 

9 

10 

12".::;::: 
13 

14 

15 

16 


9.2 
10.2 
11.2 
12.2 
13.3 
14.4 
15.5 
16.6 
17.7 


8.5 
9.5 
10. 5 
11.5 
12.6 
13.6 
14.6 
1.5. 7 
16.8 


8.1 
9.1 
10.1 
11.1 
12.1 
13.1 
14.1 
15.1 
16.2 


8.6 
9.6 
10.5 
11.5 
12.5 
13.4 
14.4 
15.4 


7.2 
8.1 
9.1 
9.9 
10.8 
11.7 
12.6 
13.5 
14.4 


6.6 
7.4 
8.2 
9.0 
9.8 
10.6 
11.4 
12.2 
13.0 


5.9 
6.7 
7.4 
8.1 
8.9 
9.7 
10.3 
11.1 
11.8 


5.2 
5.9 

^"2 
7.9 
8.6 
9.2 
9.9 
10.5 


4.2 
4.7 
5.3 
5.9 
6.4 
7.0 
7.6 
8.1 
8.6 


2.8 
3.1 
3.4 
3.8 
4.1 
4.5 
4.9 
6.2 
5.5 




1 






1 




::::::::' 












1 








10 




1 












1 








6 




1 








4 






















........... 




:..::i::.:; 








1 












37 



70-FOOT TREES. 



10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 


11.2 
12.2 
13.3 
14.4 
15.5 
16.6 
17.7 
18.8 
20.0 


10.5 
11.5 
12.6 
13.6 
14.6 
15.7 
16.8 
17.8 
18.9 


10.1 
11.1 
12.1 
13.1 
14.1 
15.1 
16.2 
17.2 
18.2 


9.6 
10.5 

\kl 

13.4 
14.4 
15.4 
16.3 
17.3 


9.0 
10.0 
10.9 
11.7 
12.6 
13.5 
14.4 
1.5. 3 
10.2 


8.3 
9.2 
10.0 
10.8 
11.6 
12.4 
13.2 
14.0 


u 

9.2 

,S:? 

11.5 
12.2 
12.9 
13.6 


6.9 
7.0 
8.3 
9.0 
9.7 
10.4 
11.1 
11.7 
12.4 


6.1 
6.7 
7.3 
7.9 
8.5 
9.1 
9.7 
10.3 
10.8 


5.0 
5.5 
5.9 
6.3 
6.9 
7.3 
7.8 
8.2 
8.6 


3.5 
3.7 
4.0 
4.2 
4.5 
4.8 
5.1 
5.3 
5.6 












5 
23 
21 

12 

2 
















































































1 




1 1 










86 



80-FOOT TREES. 



10 

11..... 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

IS.'.'.'.'. 

19 

20 

21...., 
22 



11.2 
12.2 
13.3 
14.4 

15. 5 

16. 6 
17.7 
18.8 
20.0 
21.1 
22.3 
23.4 
24.6 



10. i 
11.5 
12.6 
13.6 
14. ( 
15.7 
16. 8 
17.8 
18.9 
20.0 
21. 



10.1 

11.1 

12. 

13.1 

14.1 

15.1 

16.2 

17.2 

18.2 

19.3 

20.4 

21. 

22.5 



8.5 
9.3 
10.1 
10.9 
11.8 
12.6 
13.4 
14.2 
15.0 
15.8 
16.6 
17.4 
18.2 



7.9 
8.7 
9.4 
10.1. 
10.9 
11.7 
12.5 
13.2 
14.0 
14.7 
15.5 
16.2 
17.0 



9.4 
10. 
10.9 
11.5 
12.2 
13.0 
13.6 
14. 



9.1 
9.8 
10.4 
11.0 
11. 
12.4 
12.9 
13.5 
14.0 



4.6 

5. 

5. 

6.0 

6.4 

6.8 

7.3 

7.6 

8.1 

8.6 

8.9 

9.4 

9. 



3.0. 

3. 31. 
3.6!. 
3.9' 

4.3 . 
4.5!. 
4.9'. 
6.11. 
5.5. 
5.9 . 
6.2,. 

6.4 . 



THE RED SPRUCE. 



93 



Table 49. — Taper racasuremcnts (diameter itiside bark) of red spruce in West Virgiiii 

Continued. 



90-FOOT TREES. 



[Cl'RVED.j 



1 

Diameter 




Height above ground— Feet. 
























1 


















breast 
high. 


1 


2 


3 


4.5 


9.15 


17.3 25.45133.6141.75 49.9 


58.05 66.2174.35182.5 


90.90 


98.8 


Basis. 




Diameter inside bark— Inches. 








Inches. 


I 


















1 




Trees. 


12 


13.3 12.6 


12.1 


11.5 


10.9 10. li 9.4 


8.>. 


8.1 


7.3 


6.4 


5.1 


3.6 




13 


14.4 13.6 


13 1 


1? 5 


11.8. 11.0 


10 3 


P 5 


8 8 


8 


7 


5 6 


3.9 






1 


i1;:::.. 


15.5, 14.6 


14.1 


13.4 


12.8 


11.8 


11.0 


10.3 


9.6 


8.7 


7.5 


6.1 


4.3 







.1 6 


15 


16. 6' 15. 7 


1.5. 1 


14.4 


13.7 


12.6 


11.8 


11. C 


10.2 


9.3 


8.1 


6.5 


4.6 






.1 6 


16 


17.7 16.8 


16. 2 


1.5.4 


14.6 


13.4 


12. 6 


11. f 


11.0 


9.9 


8.6 


7.(1 


5.0 






.' 14 


17 


18.8,1 17. S 


17.2 


16. 3 


15. 5 


14.2 


13. 3 


12. 5 


11.7 


10.6 


9.2 


7.5 


5.3l 






-1 9 


IS 


20.01 18. £ 


18.2 


17.3 


16.4 


1,5.1 


14.2 


13. v. 


12. t 


11.2 


9.8 


7.^ 


5. C 








■ 4 


19 


21. i; 20. C 


19.3 


18.3 


17.3 


16. (1 


15. C 


14.1 


13.1 


11.9 


10. 3 


8.4 


5. J 








- 8 


20 


22.3 21.1 


W 4 


19.2 


18.1 


16.7 


1.5.7 


14.8 


13. 7 


12.5 


10. « 


8.8 


(>.2 








. 10 


21 


23.4 22.2 


21.4 


20.2 


19.1 


17.6 


16. 5 


15. 5 


14.4 


13.1 


11.4 


9.3 


6. .5 








.' 5 


22 


24. 61 23. 3 


22.5 


21.2 


19.9 


18.4 


17.4 


16. 3 


15.2 


13.7 


11. (J 


9.7 


O.J 








- 2 




25.7 24.-1 


2;<. 6 


22. 2 


20.9 


19.3 


18.1 


17.(1 


15. 9 


14.3 


12.4 


10.1 


V.2 








. 3 


24 


26.9 25.5 


24.6 


%^. 2 


21.7 


20. (1 


18. « 


17.8 


16. 5 


15. (1 


13. (; 


10. 6 


7.5 










2.5 

26 


28.0 26.6 
29.2 27.7 


25.6 
26.7 


24.2 
25.2 


22.6 
23.5 


20.8 
21.6 


19.7 
20.4 


18.6 
19.2 


17.2 
17.9 


15. 6 
16.3 


13.5 
14.1 


11.0 
11.4 


7.7 
8.1 














... 






1 
1 




























1 08 



100-FOOT TREES. 





1.5.5 


14.6 


14.1 


13.4 


12.7 


11.8 


11.0 


10.3 


9.8 


9.2 


8.3 


7.2 


.5,9 


4.2 


2.2 






15 


16 6 


15 7 


15 1 


14,4 


13 6 


12.6 


11.8 


11.2 


10.5 


9.7 


8.9 


7.8 


6.4 


4.5 


2.4 






4 




17.7 


16. S 


Hi, 2 


15.4 


14.6 


13.4 


12.6 


11. « 


11.2 


10.5 


9.6 


8.3 


6.8 


4.9 


2.6 






3 




18.8 


17.8 


17.2 


16.3 


1.5.5 


14.3 


13. 4 


12.6 


12. C 


11.2 


10.2 


8.8 


7.1 


5.2 


2.8 




. 


5 


18 


20 


18 4 


18 2 


17 3 


Ki.:^ 


1,5.1 


14.2 


13.4 


12.7 


11.9 


10.8 


9.4 


7.7 


.5.6 


3.1 






12 


19 


21.1 


20.0 


19.3 


18.3 


17.2 




15.0 


14.2 


13.5 


12.6 


11.4 


10.0 


8.1 


5.<) 


3.3 






5 


20 


22.3 


21.1 


20.4 


19.2 


18.2 


16.8 


1.5. 8 


15. (1 


14. :i 


1,3.2 


12.(1 


10. 5 


8.6 


6.2 


3.4 






10 


21 

22 


23. 4 
24.6 


22.2 
23.3 


21.4 
22.5 


20.2 
21.2 


19.1 
20. 


17.7 
18.5 


16.7 
17.5 


15.8 
16.6 


15.0 
15.7 


13.9 
14.6 


12. 7 
13.2 


11.1 

11.6 


9.0 
9.5 


6.6 
7.0 


3.7 
3.9 






12 
11 






23 


2.5.7 


24.4 


23.6 


22.2 


21.0 


19.4 


18.4 


17.4 


16.4 


15. 3 


13.9 


12.1 


9.9 


7.3 


4.1 






5 


24 


26. fl 


25. 5 


24.6 


23. 2 


21.8 


20. 3 


19.1 


l,s.2 


17.2 


1,5.9 


.14.5 


12.6 


10.4 




4.4 






1 


25 


28.(1 


26.6 


25. 6 


24. 2 


22. 8 


21.0 


19. H 


18.(1 


17.8 


16.6 


1.5.1 


13. 2 


10. 8 


8.(1 


4.6 






3 


26 


901 ? 


?7 7 


26 7 


25 f 


23 6 


21 9 


20 7 


14 7 


18 6 


17 3 


15 8 


13 S 


11 3 


8 4 


4 <! 








27 


30.4 


2.8.8 


27.7 


26.2 


24.5 


22.7 


21.4 


20.4 


19.2 


17.9 


16. 3 


14.3 


11.8 


8.8 


5.1 






1 


28 


31 5 


W S\ 


28 8 


27 ••' 


25 4 


23 5 


22 2 


21 1 


19 ( 


18 5 


16 <1 


14 8 


12 3 


9 1 


5 3 








29 


32.7 


31.0 


29.9 


28.2 


26. 3 


24.4 


23.1 


21.9 


20. 6 


19.2 


17.4 


15. 3 


12.8 


9.5 


5.5 








30 


33. S 


32.2 


31.(1 


29.2 


27. 2 


2.5.2 


23. 8 


22. 5 


21.3 


19.8 


18.1 


1,5. D 


13.2 


9.9 


5.8 








31 


35. 1 


33. 3 


32. (1 


30. 1 


28. 1 


26.(1 


24. (i 


23.;^ 


22. ( 


20. 5 


18.6 


16.4 


13. 6 


10. 2 


(1.(1 






1 


32 


36.3 


34.4 


33.1 


31.1 


29.0 


26. 8 


25. 3 


24. r 


22. (i 


21.1 


19.2 


16. il 


14.1 


10.7 


6.3 








33 


37 6 


35 5 


34 '> 


32. Ij 30.0 


27 6 


26. 2 


24.8 


23.4 


21.8 


19.8 


17. 5 


14.6 


11. 1 


6.6 






1 


34 


38.8 


36.6 


35.2 


33.1 30.9 


28.4 


27.0 


25.5 


24.0 


22.4 


20.4 


17.9 


15.1 


11.5 


6.8 









































74 



110-FOOT TREES. 



16... 
17... 



17 7 


16.8 


16.2 


1.5.4 


14.5 


13.4 


12.6 


12.0 


11.5 


11.0 


10.4 


9.4 


8.0 


6.4 


4.7 


18.8 


17.8 


17.2 


16.3 


1,5.4 


14.3 


13.4 


12.8 


12.2 


11.7 


11.(1 


9.li 


8.5 


6.8 


5.0 


20.0 


18.9 


18.2 


17.3 


16.3 


1,5.1 


14.2 


13. 6 


13.1 


12.4 


11.7 


10.5 


9.t 


V. 3 


5.3 


21.1 


20.0 


19.3 


1.8.3 


17.3 


1.5.9 


1,5.0 


14.4 


13.8 


13.2 


12.3 


11. C 


9.5 


7.6 


5.5 


22.3 


21.1 


20.4 


19.2 


18.2 


16.8 


1,5.9 


1.5.2 


14.6 


13.8 


12. £ 


11.6 


10. (1 


8.0 


5.8 


23 4 


22.2 


21 4 


20 ?, 


19 2 


17.7 


16.7 


16.1 


15.4 


14.6 


13.6 


12.2 


10. .5 


8.4 


6.2 


24.6 


23.3 


22.5 


21.2 


20.1 


18.6 


17.6 


16.8 


16.1 


15.3 


14.3 


12.8 


11. t 


8.t 


6.5 


2,5.7 


24.4 


23 6 


22.2 


21.1 


19.5 


1,8.5 


17.6 


1(i.9 


16.1 


1.5. ( 


13.4 


11.5 


9.3 


6.8 


26.9 


25, 5 


24.6 


23.2 


21.9 


20.4 


19.3 


18.5 


17.7 


16.7 


1.5.6 


14.(1 


12.1 


9.8 


7.2 


28.0 


26.6 


25. 6 


24.2 


22.9 


21.3 


20.2 


19.3 


18.5 


17.5 


16.2 


14.6 


12.6 


10.2 


V.4 


29.2 


27.7 


2(i7 


25. 2 


23. <A 


22. 2 


21.0 


20.1 


19.2 


18.2 


16. ^ 


15.2 


13.1 


10.6 


7.8 


30. 4 


28,8 


27.7 


26. 2 


24.8 


23. 1 


21. « 


20. 9 


19. « 


18.8 


17.5 


1,5.8 


13.7 


11.1 


8.1 


31. 5 


29.9 


28.8 


27.2 


25. 8 


24.0 


22. 8 


21.7 


20.7 


19. (i 


1.8.2 


16. 4 


14.2 


11.6 


8.5 


32.7 


31.0 


29.9 


28.2 


26.7 


24. « 


23. 7 


22.6 


21.5 


20. 3 


18.8 


16.9 


14. V 


12.0 


8.9I 


33 9 


32. ? 


31.(1 




27. (i 


25. « 


24. 6 


23. 4 


22. 2 


20. il 


19.4 


17.6 


15. ;i 


12 5 


9.2 


3.5. 1 


33.3 


,32.0 


.30.1 




26.8 


25. 4 


24.2 


23. (1 


21.7 


20.1 


18.1 


15.7 


12.9 


9.(ii 


36. 3 


34.4 


33. 1 


31.1 


29. 6 


27. 7 


26. 3 


25. 


23. 8 


22. 4 


20.7 


18. 7 


16. :j 


13.4 


9.8! 


37. 6 


35. 5 


34.2 


32. 1 


30. 6 


28.7 


27.2 


2,5.9 


24.6 


23.1 


21.4 


19. :i 


16. t 


13.9 


10.21 


38 8 


36 6 


35 2 


33. 1 


31.5 


29.6 


28.1 


26. <) 


25. 3 


2;i8 


22. 


20. ( 


IV. 5 


14.4 


10.5! 


40.0 


.37.7 


36.3 


34.1 


32.4 


30.5 


29.0 


27.7 


26. 1 


24.5 


22. 6 


20.5 


18.0 


14.;- 


10. 7 


41.2 

1 


38.8 


37.4 


.35.1 


33.4 


31.4 


29.8 


28.3 


26.9 


25.2 


23.3 


21.2 


18.6 


15.3 


10.9 



Data collected by John Foley in Greenbrier County, 1903. 



94 



BULLETIN" 544, U. S. BEPAETMEWT OF AGEICULTURE. 



STAND TABLES. 

Tables 50 to 53 are all stand tables for tlie spnice slope type and 
serve as a rough basis for comparison between the four vStates within 
which the red spruce principally occurs. The principal associates are 
balsam, yellow birch, beech, hemlock, sugar maple, and red maple, 
with incidental arborvitse, white puie, and numerous hardwoods. 
These vary much from one place to another. 



Table 50. — Stand of spruce and associates on spnice sloj)e type in Maine — Average stand 
for 20 acres, culled.^ 



[ Data collected by R. S. 



in Sciuaw Mountain Township in 1902.] 



T>i;vmeter 1)reast iiigh. 


Number of trees per acre. 


other 
species. 


Spruce. 


other 
species. 


Total. 


1 


67.90 

03.05 

47.25 

31.05 

20.40 

16. 20 

12. 65 

9.70 

5.75 

5.10 

2. .55 

3.05 

2. 15 

1.15 

1.40 

1.35 

.85 

.60 

.70 

.30 

.15 

.15 

.15 

.05 


20. 55 
27.40 
20.40 
13.00 
9.25 
6. 95 
4.35 
3.85 
2.40 
2.35 
1.95 
1.20 
.95 
1.40 
.90 
.65 
.40 
.40 
.40 
.40 
.20 
.35 
.10 
.25 
.05 
.05 


94.45 

91.05 

67.05 

44.05 

29.65 

23.15 

17.00 

13.55 

8.15 

7.45 

4.50 

4.25 

^.10 

2.55 

2.30 

2.00 

1.25 

1.00 

1.10 

.70 

.35 

.50 

.25 

.30 

.05 

.05 


Per cent. 
28 
30 
30 
30 
31 

s 

28 
29 
32 

f» 

39 
32 
32 
40 

57 
57 
70 
40 
83 
100 
100 




3 


4 . . . 




6 


7 




9 


10 






13 


14 

15 

17;:;";;:;;;;;;;;;::;;;:;;;:;;;;;:;; 

18. . 


19 

20 


21 


22. 


23 


24 




26 




27 




2X 1 








29 ' 


.05 
.05 


.05 
.05 


100 
100 


30 i :.. 


31 








.05 


.05 


100 


Total 




294. 25 
19.70 
12. 05 

Sq.ft. 
41.0 
19.5 
15.0 


126. 30 
12.15 

7.85 

«• 

14.5 
11.9 


420. 55 
31.85 
19.90 

VI: 

34.0 
26.9 


30 
38 
39 

Per cent. 
36 
43 
44 


Trees 10 inelies and over 




Totalbasal area 


Trees 10 inches and over 


Trees 12 inches and over 





» Culled 30 years before, remcing trees with a total basal area of 4.2 i 
remo\ing trees with a total basal area of 33.3 square feet; eulled 1 year b 
basal area of 10.5 square feet. , 



luare feet; CTilIed 5 years before, 
fore, removing trees with a total 



THE HED SPETJCE. 



95 



Table 51. — Stand of spruce and associates on spruce slope type in New Hampshire- 
Average stand for 65 acres. 

[Data collected by A. K. Cliittenaiai in WaterviUe Towiisliip iu 1903.] 



Diameter breast high. 



Total 

Trees 10 inches and over . 
Trees 12 inches and over. 



Number of trees per acre. 



Spruce. 



19.5. 74 
87.54 
66.22 



Sq.ft. 

Total basal area 122. 1 

Trees 10 inches and over [ 104.2 

Trees 12 inches and over ' 91.4 



12.01 
12.08 
10.59 
8.21 
6.76 



5.18 
5.39 
3.57 
3.08 
2.64 
2.44 
1.91 
1.62 
1.21 
1.11 
.90 
.95 
.84 
.66 
.31 
.28 
.18 
.23 
.12 
.04 
.05 
.05 
.02 



109. 28 
27.66 
18.70 

Sq.ft. 
45.3 
33.7 
28.4 



Total. 



42. 16 
27.52 
26.36 
23.53 
19.41 
17.24 
17.28 
16. 32 
16.42 
13.86 
13.46 
11.76 
11.66 
9.43 
9. 51 
7.01 
6.23 
4.30 
3.43 
3. IS 
1.84 

'.n 

.47 
.34 
.27 
.13 
.05 
.05 
.02 



Other 
species. 



Per cent. 
47 
44 
46 
45 
42 



.02 
.02 



305. 02 
115. 20 
84.92 

Sq. fi. 

137.9 
119. 8 



36 
24 
22 

Per cent, 
•il 
24 
24 



96 



BULLETIN 544, U. S. DEPAETMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 



Table 52. — Stand of spruce and associates on spruce slope type in New Yorlc — Average 
stand for 37 aa-es. 

[Data collected by R. S. Hosmer in Township 40, Hamilton County, in 1900.] 



Piameter breast high. 


Number of trees per acre. 


Other 

specios. 


Spruce. 


Other 
species. 


Total. 


Inches. 
5 


12. 35 

9.S5 

7.86 

6.57 

6.24 

5.05 

4. .57 

.3.81 

3.41 

3. 35 

2.22 

2.03 

1. 65 

1.19 

.84 

.70 

.32 

.19 

.08 

.08 

.03 


0.95 
.46 
.22 
.14 
.22 
.32 
.19 
2.23 
1.53 
1.92 
1.61 
1.46 
1.20 
1.05 
1.03 
.87 
.89 
.59 
.70 
. ,54 
.38 
.41 
.21 
.16 
.22 
.05 
.03 
.03 
.03 
.03 


13. 30 

9.81 

8.08 

6.71 

6.46 

5.37 

4.76 

6.04 

4.94 

5.27 

3.83 

.3.49 

2.85 

2.24 

1.87 

1.57 

1.21 

.78 

.78 

.62 

.41 

.41 

.26 

.16 

.22 

.05 

.03 

.03 

.03 

.03 


Per cent. 

7 

5 

3 

2 

3 

6 

4 

37 

31 

36 

42 

42 

42 

47 

55 

55 

74 

76 

90 

87 

93 

100 

81 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 


6 






9 






12 


13 




15 


16 ... 






19 


29 






23 


24 






27 .... 


.05 


28 






30 




31 








33 




34 .... 




Total 




71.94 
29.57 
19. 95 

Sq.ft. 
41.6 
31.0 
2.5.2 


19.67 
17.68 
17.17 

Sq.ft. 
31.3 
30.9 
30.6 


91.61 
47.25 
37.12 

Sq.ft. 
72.9 
61.9 
55.8 


21 

37 
46 

Pircrnt. 
43 
50 
55 




Trees 12 inches and over 


Total basal area 


Trees 10 inches and over 





THE BED SPEUCE. 



97 



Table 5'^.— Stand of spruce and associates on spruce slope type in West Virginia— Aver- 
age stand for 100 acres. 

[Data collected bj' John Foley in Greenbrier County in 1902.] 



Diameter breast liiirh. 


NuniV>c 


r of trees per acre. 


Other 
species. 


Spruce. 


Other 
species. 


Total. 


Indies. 
1 


17.05 
18. 92 
20.44 
14.01 
9.01 
6.03 
5.19 
4.24 
2.95 
2.79 
1.93 
1.71 
1. 56 
1.55 
1..35 
1.20 
1.10 
1.17 
.84 
.88 
.85 
.73 
.44 
.56 
..55 
.33 
.38 

.23 
.12 
.04 
.10 
.03 
.03 
.02 


11.06 

12.19 

10.95 

8.22 

6.70 

4.94 

3.87 

3.17 

2.36 

2.49 

1.51 

1.59 

1.35 

1.36 

1.27 

.95 

.99 

.83 

.84 

.81 

.76 

.56 

.65 

.65 

.39 

.37 

.36 

.41 

.28 

.23 

.24 

.28 

.09 

.27 

.15 

.08 

.03 

.08 

.01 

.01 

.01 

.02 


28.11 

31.11 

31.39 

22.23 

1.5. 71 

10. 97 

9.06 

7.41 

5.31 

5.28 

3.44 

3.30 

2.91 

2.91 

2.62 

2.15 

2.09 

2.00 

1.68 

1.69 

1.61 

1.29 

1.09 

1.21 

.94 

.70 

.74 

.39 
. 16 
. 30 
.32 
.19 
.30 
.18 
.10 
.03 
.08 
.01 
.01 
.01 
.02 


Per cent. 
39 
39 
35 
37 
43 
45 
43 
43 
44 
47 
44 
48 
40 
47 
48 
44 
47 
41 
50 
48 
47 
47 
60 
54 
41 
.-.3 
49 
60 
72 
50 
67 
87 
47 
90 
8:5 
80 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 


2 




4 




6 


7 


8 


9 


10 ■ .... 






13 . 


14 




16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 . 


27 


28 


29 


30 




32 .. 


33 




35 


36 


37 






39 








41 




42 . . 








118. 71 
20.87 
16.15 

Sq.ft. 
43.6 
31.3 
31.5 


83.38 
19.92 
15.92 

Sq.ft. 
45.7 
39.1 
36.7 


202.09 
40.79 
32.07 

Sq.ft. 
89.3 
73.4 

68.2 


41 

49 
50 

I'lrcent. 
51 
53 
54 


Trees 10 inches and over 




Total basal area. . . 


Trees 10 inches and ov"er 


Trees 12 inches and over . 





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